Underneathalllegitimateauthorityhisconsentorhisvotemustbeapparent，while，inthehumblestcitizen，themostexaltedofpublicpowersmustrecognizeamemberoftheirownsovereignty。Noonemayalienateorlosethisportionofhissovereignty；itisinseparablefromhisperson，and，ondelegatingittoanother，hereservestohimselffullpossessionofit。—Theliberty，equalityandsovereigntyofthepeopleconstitutethefirstarticlesofthesocialcontract。
Thesearerigorouslydeducedfromaprimarydefinition；otherrightsofthecitizenaretobenolessrigorouslydeducedfromit，themainfeaturesoftheconstitution，themostimportantcivilandpoliticallaws，inshort，theorder，theformandthespiritofthenewstate。
II。NAIVECONVICTIONS
Thefirstresult。—Thetheoryeasilyapplied。—Confidenceinitduetobeliefinman’sinherentgoodnessandreasonableness。
Hence，twoconsequences。—Inthefirstplace，asocietythusorganizedistheonlyjustone；for，thereverseofallothers，itisnottheresultofablindsubjectiontotraditions，butofacontractconcludedamongequals，examinedinopendaylight，andassentedtoinfullfreedom。[5]Thesocialcontract，composedofdemonstratedtheorems，hastheauthorityofgeometry；henceanequalvalueatalltimes，ineveryplace，andforeverypeople；itisaccordinglyrightfullyestablished。Thosewhoputanobstacleinitswayareenemiesofthehumanrace；whetheragovernment，anaristocracyoraclergy，theymustbeoverthrown。Revoltissimplyjustdefense；inwithdrawingourselvesfromtheirhandsweonlyrecoverwhatiswrongfullyheldandwhichlegitimatelybelongstous。—Inthesecondplace，thissocialcode，asjustsetforth，oncepromulgated，isapplicablewithoutmisconceptionorresistance；foritisaspeciesofmoralgeometry，simplerthananyother，reducedtofirstprinciples，foundedontheclearestandmostpopularnotions，and，infoursteps，leadingtocapitaltruths。Thecomprehensionandapplicationofthesetruthsdemandnopreparatorystudyorprofoundreflection；Reasonisenough，andevencommonsense。Prejudiceandselfishnessalonemightimpairthetestimony；butneverwilltestimonybewantinginasoundbrainandinanuprightheart。Explaintherightsofmantoalaborerortoapeasantandatoncehebecomesanablepolitician；teachchildrenthecitizen’scatechismand，onleavingschool，theycomprehenddutiesandrightsaswellasthefourfundamentalprinciples。—Thereuponhopespreadsherwingstothefullestextent，allobstaclesseemremoved。Itisadmittedthat，ofitself，andthroughitsownforce，thetheoryengendersitsownapplication，andthatitsufficesformentodecreeoracceptthesocialcompacttoacquiresuddenlybythisactthecapacityforcomprehendingitandthedispositiontocarryitout。
Whatawonderfulconfidence，atfirstinexplicable，whichassumewithregardtomananideawhichwenolongerhold。Man，indeed，wasregardedasessentiallygoodandreasonable。—Rational，thatistosay，capableofassentingtoaplainobviousprinciple，offollowinganulteriorchainofargument，ofunderstandingandacceptingthefinalconclusion，ofextractingforhimself，ontheoccasioncallingforit，thevariedconsequencestowhichitleads:suchistheordinarymanintheeyesofthewritersoftheday；theyjudgedhimbythemselves。Tothemthehumanintellectistheirown，theclassicintellect。Forahundredandfiftyyearsitruledinliterature，inphilosophy，inscience，ineducation，inconversation，byvirtueoftradition，ofusageandofgoodtaste。Nootherwastoleratedandnootherwasimagined；andif，withinthisclosedcircle，astrangersucceedsinintroducinghimself，itisonconditionofadoptingtheoratoricalidiomwhichtheraisonraisonnanteimposesonallitsguests，onGreeks，Englishmen，barbarians，peasantsandsavages，howeverdifferentfromeachotherandhoweverdifferenttheymaybeamongstthemselves。InBuffon，thefirstman，onnarratingthefirsthoursofhisbeing，analyseshissensations，emotionsandimpulses，withasmuchsubtletyasCondillachimself。WithDiderot，OtoutheTahitian，withBernardindeSt。Pierre，asemi—savageHinduandanoldcolonistoftheIle—de—France，withRousseauacountryvicar，agardenerandajuggler，areallaccomplishedconversationalistsandmoralists。InMarmontelandinFlorian，inalltheliteratureofinferiorrankprecedingoraccompanyingtheRevolution，alsointhetragicorcomicdrama，thechieftalentofthepersonage，whoeverhemaybe，whetheranuncultivatedrustic，tattooedbarbarianornakedsavage，consistsinbeingabletoexplainhimself，inarguingandinfollowinganabstractdiscoursewithintelligenceandattention，intracingforhimself，orinthefootstepsofaguide，therectilinearpathwayofgeneralideas。Thus，tothespectatorsoftheeighteenthcentury，Reasoniseverywhereandshestandsaloneintheworld。A
formofintellectsouniversalnecessarilystrikesthemasnatural，theyresemblepeoplewho，speakingbutonelanguage，andonetheyhavealwaysspokenwithfacility，cannotimagineanotherlanguagebeingspoken，orthattheymaybesurroundedbythedeafandthedumb。Andsomuchthemoreinasmuchastheirtheoryauthorizesthisprejudice。
Accordingtothenewideologyallmindsarewithinreachofalltruths。Iftheminddoesnotgraspthemthefaultisoursinnotbeingproperlyprepared；itwillcomprehendifwetakethetroubletoguideitproperly。Forithassensesthesameasourown；andsensations，revived，combinedandnotedbysigns，sufficetoform\"notonlyallourconceptionsbutagainallourfaculties。\"[6]Anexactandconstantrelationshipofideasattachesoursimplestperceptionstothemostcomplexsciences，and，fromthelowesttothehighestdegree，ascaleispracticable；ifthescholarstopsonthewayitisowingtoourhavinglefttoogreatanintervalbetweentwodegreesofthescale；
letnointermediarydegreesbeomittedandhewillmounttothetopofit。Tothisexaltedideaofthefacultiesofmanisaddedanolessexaltedideaofhisheart。Rousseauhavingdeclaredthistobenaturallygood，therefinedclassplungeintothebeliefwithalltheexaggerationsoffashionandallthesentimentalityofthedrawing—
room。Theconvictioniswidespreadthatman，andespeciallythemanofthepeople，issensitiveandaffectionatebynature；thatheisimmediatelyimpressedbybenefactionsanddisposedtobegratefulforthem，thathesoftensattheslightestsignofinterestinhim，andthatheiscapableofeveryrefinement。Aseriesofengravingsrepresentstwochildreninadilapidatedcottage，[7]onefiveandtheotherthreeyearsold，bythesideofaninfirmgrandmother，onesupportingherheadandtheothergivingherdrink；thefatherandmotherenterand，onseeingthistouchingincident，\"thesegoodpeoplefindthemselvessohappyinpossessingsuchchildrentheyforgettheyarepoor。\"\"Oh，myfather，\"criesashepherdyouthofthePyrénées，[8]
\"acceptthisfaithfuldog，sotruetomeforsevenyears；infuturelethimfollowanddefendyou，thusservingmebetterthaninanyothermanner。\"Itwouldrequiretoomuchspacetofollowintheliteratureoftheendofthecentury，fromMarmonteltoBernardindeSaint—Pierre，andfromFloriantoBerquinandBitaubé，theinterminablerepetitionofthesesweetinsipidities。Theillusionevenreachesstatesmen。\"Sire，\"saysTurgot，onpresentingthekingwithaplanofpoliticaleducation，[9]\"Iventuretoassertthatintenyearsyournationwillnolongerberecognizable，andthroughenlightenmentandgoodmorals，inintelligentzealforyourserviceandforthecountry，itwillriseaboveallothernations。Childrenwhoarenowtenyearsofagewillthenbemenpreparedforthestate，lovingtheircountry，submissivetoauthority，notthroughfearbutthroughReason，aidingtheirfellow—citizens，andaccustomedtorecognizingandrespectingjustice。\"—InthemonthsofJanuary，1789，[10]Necker，towhomM。deBouillépointedouttheimminentdangerarisingfromtheunswervingeffortsoftheThird—Estate，\"coldlyreplied，turninghiseyesupward，’reliancemustbeplacedonthemoralvirtuesofman。’\"
—Inthemain，ontheimaginationforminganyconceptionofhumansociety，thisconsistsofavague，semi—bucolic，semi—theatricalscene，somewhatresemblingthosedisplayedonthefrontispiecesofillustratedworksonmoralsandpolitics。Half—nakedmenwithothersclothedinskins，assembletogetherunderalargeoaktree；inthecenterofthegroupavenerableoldmanarisesandmakesanaddress，using\"thelanguageofnatureandReason，\"proposingthatallshouldbeunited，andexplaininghowmenareboundtogetherbymutualobligations；heshowsthemtheharmonyofprivateandofpublicinterests，andendsbymakingthemappreciateofthebeautyofvirtue。[11]Alluttershoutsofjoy，embraceeachother，gatherroundthespeakerandelecthimchiefmagistrate；dancingisgoingonunderthebranchesinthebackground，andhenceforthhappinessonearthisfullyestablished。—Thisisnoexaggeration。TheNationalAssemblyaddressesthenationinharanguesofthisstyle。FormanyyearsthegovernmentspeakstothepeopleasitwouldtooneofGessner’sshepherds。Thepeasantsareentreatednottoburncastlesbecauseitispainfulfortheirgoodkingtoseesuchsights。Theyareexhorted\"tosurprisehimwiththeirvirtuesinorderthathemaybethesoonerrewardedforhisown。\"[12]AttheheightoftheJacquerietumultsthesagesofthedayseemtothinktheyarelivinginastateofpastoralsimplicity，andthatwithanairontheflutetheymayrestoretoitsfoldthehowlingpackofbestialanimositiesandunchainedappetitesIII。OURTRUEHUMANNATURE。
Theinadequacyandfragilityofreasoninman。—Therarityandinadequacyofreasoninhumanity。—Subordinationofreasoninhumanconduct。—Brutalanddangerousforces。—Thenatureandutilityofgovernment。Governmentimpossibleunderthenewtheory。
Itisasadthingtofallasleepinasheep—shedand，onawakening，tofindthesheeptransformedintowolves；andyet，intheeventofarevolutionthatiswhatwemayexpect。WhatwecallreasoninManisnotaninnateendowment，basicandenduring，butatardyacquisitionandafragilecomposition。Theslightestphysiologicalknowledgewilltellusthatitisaprecariousactofbalance，dependentonthenolessgreaterinstabilityofthebrain，nerves，circulationanddigestion。Takewomenthatarehungryandmenthathavebeendrinking；placeathousandofthesetogether，andletthemexciteeachotherwiththeircries，theiranxieties，andthecontagiousreactionoftheirever—deepeningemotions；itwillnotbelongbeforeyoufindthemacrowdofdangerousmaniacs。Thisbecomesevident，andabundantlyso，after1789。—Now，consultpsychology。
Thesimplestmentaloperation，asensuousperception，isanactofmemory，theapplianceofaname，anordinaryactofjudgmentistheplayofcomplicatedmechanism，thejointandfinalresultofseveralmillionsofwheelswhich，likethoseofaclock，[13]turnandpropelblindly，eachforitself，eachthroughitsownforce，andeachkeptinplaceandinfunctionalactivitybyasystemofbalanceandcompensation。[14]Ifthehandsmarkthehourwithanydegreeofaccuracyitisduetoawonderfulifnotmiraculousconjunction，whilehallucination，deliriumandmonomania，everatthedoor，arealwaysreadytoenterit。ProperlyspeakingManismad，asthebodyissick，bynature；thehealthofourmind，likethehealthofourorgans，issimplyarepeatedachievementandahappyaccident。Ifsuchhappenstobethecasewiththecoarsewoofandcanvas，withthelargeandapproximatelystrongthreadsofourintellect，whatarethechancesfortheulteriorandsuperaddedembroidery，thesubtleandcomplicatednettingformingreasonproperlysocalled，andwhichiscomposedofgeneralideas？Formedbyaslowanddelicateprocessofweaving，throughalongsystemofsigns，amidsttheagitationofpride，ofenthusiasmandofdogmaticobstinacy，whatrisk，eveninthemostperfectbrain，fortheseideasonlyinadequatelytocorrespondwithoutwardreality！Allthatwerequireinthisconnectionistowitnesstheoperationoftheidyllinvoguewiththephilosophersandpoliticians。—Thesebeingthesuperiorminds，whatcanbesaidofthemassesofthepeople，oftheuncultivatedorsemi—cultivatedbrains？Accordingasreasoniscrippledinmansoisitrareinhumanity。Generalideasandaccuratereasoningarefoundonlyinaselectfew。Thecomprehensionofabstracttermsandthehabitofmakingaccuratedeductionsrequirespreviousandspecialpreparation，aprolongedmentalexerciseandsteadypractice，andbesidesthis，wherepoliticalmattersareconcerned，adegreeofcomposurewhich，affordingeveryfacilityforreflection，enablesamantodetachhimselfforamomentfromhimselffortheconsiderationofhisinterestsasadisinterestedobserver。Ifoneoftheseconditionsiswanting，reason，especiallyinrelationtopolitics，isabsent。—Inapeasantoravillager，inanymanbroughtupfrominfancytomanuallabor，notonlyisthenetworkofsuperiorconceptionsdefective，butagaintheinternalmachinerybywhichtheyarewovenisnotperfected。
Accustomedtotheopenair，totheexerciseofhislimbs，hisattentionflagsifhestandsinactiveforaquarterofanhour；
generalizedexpressionsfindtheirwayintohismindonlyassound；
thementalcombinationtheyoughttoexcitecannotbeproduced。Hebecomesdrowsyunlessapowerfulvibratingvoicecontagiouslyarousesinhimtheinstinctsoffleshandblood，thepersonalcravings，thesecretenmitieswhich，restrainedbyoutwarddiscipline，arealwaysreadytobesetfree。—Inthehalf—cultivatedmind，evenwiththemanwhothinkshimselfcultivatedandwhoreadsthenewspapers，principlesaregenerallydisproportionateguests；theyareabovehiscomprehension；hedoesnotmeasuretheirbearings，hedoesnotappreciatetheirlimitations，heisinsensibletotheirrestrictionsandhefalsifiestheirapplication。Theyarelikethosepreparationsofthelaboratorywhich，harmlessinthechemist’shands，becomedestructiveinthestreetunderthefeetofpassingpeople。—Toosoonwillthisbeapparentwhen，inthenameofpopularsovereignty，eachcommune，eachmob，shallregarditselfasthenationandactaccordingly；whenReason，inthehandsofitsnewinterpreters，shallinaugurateriotsinthestreetsandpeasantinsurrectionsinthefields。[15]
Thisisowingtothephilosophersoftheagehavingbeenmistakenintwoways。NotonlyisreasonnotnaturaltoMannoruniversalinhumanity，butagain，intheconductofManandofhumanity，itsinfluenceissmall。Exceptwithafewcoolandclearintellects，aFontenelle，aHume，aGibbon，withwhomitmayprevailbecauseitencountersnorivals，itisveryfarfromplayingaleadingpart；itbelongstootherforcesbornwithinus，andwhich，byvirtueofbeingthefirstcomers，remaininpossessionofthefield。Theplaceobtainedbyreasonisalwaysrestricted；theofficeitfulfillsisgenerallysecondary。Openlyorsecretly，itisonlyaconvenientsubaltern，adomesticadvocateconstantlysuborned，employedbytheproprietorstopleadintheirbehalf；iftheyyieldprecedenceinpublicitisonlythroughdecorum。Vainlydotheyproclaimittherecognizedsovereign；theygrantitonlyapassingauthority，and，underitsnominalcontrol，theyremaintheinwardmasters。ThesemastersofManconsistsofphysicaltemperament，bodilyneeds，animalinstinct，hereditaryprejudice，imagination，generallythedominantpassion，andmoreparticularlypersonalorfamilyinterest，alsothatofcasteorparty。Wearemakingabigmistakewereweassumementobenaturallygood，generous，pleasant，oratanyrategentle，pliable，andreadytosacrificethemselvestosocialinterestsortothoseofothers。Thereareseveral，andamongthemthestrongest，who，lefttothemselves，wouldonlywreakhavoc。—Inthefirstplace，ifthereisnocertaintyofManbeingaremotebloodcousinofthemonkey，itisatleastcertainthat，inhisstructure，heisananimalcloselyrelatedtothemonkey，providedwithcanineteeth，carnivorous，formerlycannibaland，therefore，ahunterandbellicose。Hencethereisinhimasteadysubstratumofbrutalityandferocity，andofviolentanddestructiveinstincts，towhichmustbeadded，ifheisFrench，gaiety，laughter，andastrangepropensitytogambolandactinsanelyinthehavochemakes；weshallseehimatwork。—Inthesecondplace，attheoutset，hisconditioncastshimnakedanddestituteonanungratefulsoil，onwhichsubsistenceisdifficult，where，attheriskofdeath，heisobligedtosaveandtoeconomize。
Henceaconstantpreoccupationandtherootedideaofacquiring，accumulating，andpossessing，rapacityandavarice，moreparticularlyintheclasswhich，tiedtotheglobe，fastsforsixtygenerationsinordertosupportotherclasses，andwhosecrookedfingersarealwaysoutstretchedtoclutchthesoilwhosefruitstheycausetogrow；—weshallseethisclassatwork。—Finally，hismoredelicatementalorganizationmakesofhimfromtheearliestdaysanimaginativebeinginwhichswarmingfanciesdevelopthemselvesintomonstrouschimerastoexpandhishopes，fearsanddesiresbeyondallbounds。Henceanexcessofsensibility，suddenoutburstsofemotion，contagiousagitation，irresistiblecurrentsofpassion，epidemicsofcredulityandsuspicion，inshort，enthusiasmandpanic，especiallyifheisFrench，thatistosay，excitableandcommunicative，easilythrownoffhisbalanceandprompttoacceptforeignimpulsion，deprivedofthenaturalballastwhichaphlegmatictemperamentandconcentrationoflonelymeditationssecuretohisGermanandLatinneighbors；andallthisweshallseeatwork。—Theseconstitutesomeofthebruteforcesthatcontrolhumanlife。Inordinarytimeswepaynoattentiontothem；beingsubordinatedtheydonotseemtousformidable。Wetakeitforgrantedthattheyareallayedandpacified；weflatterourselvesthatthedisciplineimposedonthemhasmadethemnatural，andthatbydintofflowingbetweendikestheyaresettleddownintotheiraccustomedbeds。Thetruthisthat，likeallbruteforces，likeastreamoratorrent，theyonlyremainintheseunderconstraint；itisthedikewhich，throughitsresistance，producesthismoderation。
Anotherforceequaltotheirforcehadtobeinstalledagainsttheiroutbreaksanddevastation，graduatedaccordingtotheirscale，allthefirmerastheyaremoremenacing，despoticifneedbeagainsttheirdespotism，inanyeventconstrainingandrepressive，attheoutsetatribalchief，lateranarmygeneral，allmodesconsistinginanelectiveorhereditaryman—at—arms，possessingvigilanteyesandvigorousarms，andwho，withblows，excitesfearand，throughfear，maintainsorder。Intheregulationandlimitationofhisblowsdiversinstrumentalitiesareemployed，apre—establishedconstitution，adivisionofpowers，acodeoflaws，tribunals，andlegalformalities。
Atthebottomofallthesewheelseverappearstheprincipallever，theefficaciousinstrument，namely，thepolicemanarmedagainstthesavage，brigandandmadmaneachofusharbors，inreposeormanacled，butalwaysliving，intherecessesofhisownbreast。[16]
Onthecontrary，inthenewtheory，everyprinciplepromulgated，everyprecautiontaken，everysuspicionawakedisaimedagainstthepoliceman。Inthenameofthesovereigntyofthepeopleallauthorityiswithdrawnfromthegovernment，everyprerogative，everyinitiative，itscontinuanceanditsforce。Thepeople，beingsovereignthegovernmentissimplyitsclerk，andlessthanitsclerk，merelyitsdomestic。—Betweenthem\"nocontract\"indefiniteoratleastenduring，\"andwhichmaybecanceledonlybymutualconsentortheunfaithfulnessofoneofthetwoparties。Itisagainstthenatureofapoliticalbodyforthesovereigntoimposealawonhimselfwhichhecannotsetaside。\"—Thereisnosacredandinviolablecharter\"bindingapeopletotheformsofanestablishedconstitution。Therighttochangetheseisthefirstguaranteeofallrights。Thereisnot，andnevercanbe，anyfundamental，obligatorylawfortheentirebodyofapeople，noteventhesocialcontract。\"—Itisthroughusurpationanddeceptionthataprince，anassembly，andabodyofmagistratesdeclarethemselvesrepresentativesofthepeople。
\"Sovereigntyisnottoberepresentedforthesamereasonthatitisnottobeceded……Themomentapeoplegivesitselfrepresentativesitisnolongerfree，itexistsnomore……TheEnglishpeoplethinkthemselvesfreebuttheydeceivethemselves；theyarefreeonlyduringanelectionofmembersofparliament；ontheelectionofthesetheybecomeslavesandarenull……thedeputiesofthepeoplearenot，norcantheybe，itsrepresentatives；theyaresimplyitscommissionersandcansignnobindingfinalagreement。
Everylawnotratifiedbythepeoplethemselvesisnullandisnolaw。\"[17]——\"AbodyoflawssanctionedbyanassemblyofthepeoplethroughafixedconstitutionoftheStatedoesnotsuffice；otherfixedandperiodicalassembliesarenecessarywhichcannotbeabolishedorextended，soarrangedthatonagivendaythepeoplemaybelegitimatelyconvokedbythelaw，nootherformalconvictionbeingrequisite……Themomentthepeoplearethusassembledthejurisdictionofthegovernmentistocease，andtheexecutivepoweristobesuspended，\"societycommencinganew，whilecitizens，restoredtotheirprimitiveindependence，mayreconstituteatwill，foranyperiodtheydetermine，theprovisionalcontracttowhichtheyhaveassentedonlyforadeterminedtime。\"Theopeningoftheseassemblies，whosesoleobjectistomaintainthesocialcompact，shouldalwaystakeplacewithtwopropositions，neversuppressed，andwhicharetobevotedonseparately；thefirstone，whetherthesovereign（people）iswillingtomaintaintheactualformofthegovernment；thesecond，whetherthepeoplearewillingtoleaveitsadministrationinthehandsofthoseactuallyperformingitsduties。\"—Thus，\"theactbywhichapeopleissubjecttoitschiefsisabsolutelyonlyacommission，aserviceinwhich，assimpleofficersoftheirsovereign，theyexerciseinhisnamethepowerofwhichhehasmadethemdepositories，andwhichhemaymodify，limitandresumeatpleasure。\"[18]Notonlydoesitalwaysreservetoitself\"thelegislativepowerwhichbelongstoitandwhichcanbelongonlytoit，\"butagain，itdelegatesandwithdrawstheexecutivepoweraccordingtoitsfancy。Thosewhoexerciseitareitsemployees。\"Itmayestablishanddeposethemwhenitpleases。\"Inrelationtoittheyhavenorights。\"Itisnotamatterofcontractwiththembutoneofobedience；\"theyhave\"noconditions\"toprescribe；theycannotdemandofitthefulfillmentofanyengagement。—Itisuselesstoraisetheobjectionthat，accordingtothis，everymanofspiritorofculturewilldeclineouroffices，andthatourchiefswillbearthecharacteroflackeys。Wewillnotleavethemthefreedomofacceptingordecliningoffice；weimposeitonthemauthoritatively。\"Ineverytruedemocracythemagistratureisnotanadvantagebutanonerousburden，nottobeassignedtoonemorethantoanother。\"Wecanlayhandsonourmagistrates，takethembythecollarandsetthemontheirbenchesinspiteofthemselves。Byfairmeansorfoultheyaretheworkingsubjects（corvéables）oftheState，inalowerconditionthanavaletoramechanic，sincethemechanicdoeshisworkaccordingtoacceptableconditions，andthedischargedvaletcanclaimhiseightdays’noticetoquit。Assoonasthegovernmentthrowsoffthishumbleattitudeitusurps，whileconstitutionsaretoproclaimthat，insuchanevent，insurrectionisnotonlythemostsacredrightbutthemostimperativeduty。—Thenewtheoryisnowputintopractice，andthedogmaofthesovereigntyofthepeople，interpretedbythecrowd，istoresultinacompleteanarchy，uptothemomentwhen，interpretedbyitsleaders，itproducesperfectdespotism。
IV。BIRTHOFSOCIALISTTHEORY，ITSTWOSIDES。
Thesecondresult。—Thenewtheoryleadstodespotism。—
Precedentsforthistheory。—Administrativecentralization。—TheUtopiaoftheEconomists。—Invalidityofprecedingrights。—
Collateralassociationsnottolerated。—Completealienationoftheindividualfromthecommunity。—RightsoftheStateinrelationtoproperty，educationandreligion。—TheStateaSpartanconvent。
Forthistheoryhastwoaspects；whereasonesideleadstowardstheperpetualdemolitionofgovernment，theotherresultsintheunlimiteddictatorshipoftheState。Thenewsocialcontractisnotahistoricpact，liketheEnglishDeclarationofRightsin1688，ortheDutchfederationin1579，enteredintobyactualandlivingindividuals，admittingacquiredsituations，groupsalreadyformed，establishedpositions，anddrawnuptorecognize，define，guaranteeandcompleteanteriorrights。Antecedenttothesocialcontractnoveritablerightexist；forveritablerightsarebornsolelyoutofthesocialcontract，theonlyvalidone，sinceitistheonlyoneagreeduponbetweenbeingsperfectlyequalandperfectlyfree，somanyabstractcreatures，somanyspeciesofmathematicalunits，allofthesamevalue，allplayingthesamepartandwhoseinequalityorconstraintneverdisturbsthecommonunderstanding。Henceatthemomentofitscompletion，allotherfactsarenullified。Property，family，church，noancientinstitutionmayinvokeanyrightagainstthenewState。Theareaonwhichitisbuiltupmustbeconsideredvacant；ifoldstructuresarepartlyallowedtoremainitisonlyinitsnameandforitsbenefit，tobeenclosedwithinitsbarriersandappropriatedtoitsuse；theentiresoilofhumanityisitsproperty。
Ontheotherhanditisnot，accordingtotheAmericandoctrine，anassociationformutualprotection，asocietylikeothersocieties，circumscribedinitspurpose，restrictedtoitsoffice，limitedinitspowers，andbywhichindividualsreservingtothemselvesthebetterportionoftheirpropertyandpersons，assesseachotherforthemaintenanceofanarmy，apolice，tribunals，highways，schools，inshort，themajorinstrumentsofpublicsafetyandutility，atthesametimewithholdingtheremainderoflocal，general，spiritualandmaterialservicesinfavorofprivateinitiativeandofspontaneousassociationsthatmayariseasoccasionornecessitycallsforthem。
OurStateisnottobeasimpleutilitarianmachine，aconvenient，handyimplement，ofwhichtheworkmanavailshimselfwithoutabandoningthefreeuseofhishand，orthesimultaneoususeofotherimplements。Beingelderborn，theonlysonandsolerepresentativeofReasonitmust，toensureitssway，leavenothingbeyonditsgrasp。—
Inthisrespecttheoldrégimepavesthewayforthenewone，whiletheestablishedsysteminclinesmindsbeforehandtothebuddingtheory。ThroughadministrativecentralizationtheStatealready，foralongtime，hasitshandseverywhere。[19]
\"Youmustknow，\"saysLawtotheMarquisd’Argenson，\"thatthekingdomofFranceisgovernedbythirtyintendants。Youhaveneitherparliaments，assembliesorgovernors，simplythirtymastersofrequests，provincialclerks，onwhomdependsthehappinessormisery，thefruitfulnessorsterilityoftheseprovinces。\"
Theking，infact，sovereign，father，anduniversalguardian，manageslocalaffairsthroughhisdelegates，andintervenesinprivateaffairsthroughhisfavorsorlettres—de—cachet（royalordersofimprisonment）。Suchanexampleandsuchacoursefollowedforfiftyyearsexcitestheimagination。Nootherinstrumentismoreusefulforcarryinglargereformsoutatonetime。Hence，farfromrestrictingthecentralpowertheeconomistsaredesirousofextendingitsaction。
Insteadofsettingupnewdikesagainstittheyinterestthemselvesonlyindestroyingwhatisleftoftheolddikesstillinterferingwithit。\"Thesystemofcounter—forcesinagovernment，\"saysQuesnayandhisdisciples，\"isafatalidea……Thespeculationsonwhichthesystemofcounter—balanceisfoundedarechimerical……Letthegovernmenthaveafullcomprehensionofitsdutiesandbeleftfree……TheStatemustgovernaccordingtotheessentiallawsoforder，andinthiscaseunlimitedpowerisrequisite。\"OntheapproachoftheRevolutionthesamedoctrinereappears，exceptinthesubstitutionofonetermforanotherterm。Intheplaceofthesovereigntyofthekingthe\"Contratsocial\"substitutesthesovereigntyofthepeople。Thelatter，however，ismuchmoreabsolutethantheformer，and，inthedemocraticconventwhichRousseauconstructs，onSpartanandRomanmodel，theindividualisnothingandtheStateeverything。
Ineffect，\"theclausesofthesocialcontractreducethemselvestoone，namely，thetotaltransferofeachassociatewithallhisrightstothecommunity。\"[20]Everyonesurrendershimselfentirely，\"justashestands，heandallhisforces，ofwhichhispropertyformsaportion。\"Thereisnoexceptionnorreservation；whateverhemayhavebeenpreviouslyandwhatevermayhavebelongedtohimisnolongerhisown。Henceforthwhateverhebecomesorwhateverhemaypossessdevolvesonhimonlythroughthedelegationofthesocialbody，theuniversalproprietorandabsolutemaster。AllrightsmustbevestedintheStateandnoneintheindividual；otherwisetherewouldbelitigationbetweenthem，and，\"asthereisnocommonsuperiortodecidebetweenthem\"theirlitigationwouldneverend。Onethecontrary，throughthecompletedonationwhicheachonemakesofhimself，\"theunityisasperfectaspossible；\"havingrenouncedhimself\"hehasnofurtherclaimtomake。\"
Thisbeingadmittedletustracetheconsequences。—
Inthefirstplace，Ienjoymypropertyonlythroughtoleranceandatsecond—hand；for，accordingtothesocialcontract，Ihavesurrenderedit；[21]\"itnowformsaportionofthenationalestate；\"
IfIretaintheuseofitsforthetimebeingitisthroughaconcessionoftheStatewhichmakesmea\"depositary\"ofit。Andthisfavormustnotbeconsideredasrestitution。\"Farfromacceptingthepropertyofindividualssocietydespoilsthemofit，simplyconvertingtheusurpationintoaveritableright，theenjoymentofitintoproprietorship。\"PrevioustothesocialcontractIwaspossessornotbyrightbutinfactandevenunjustlyifIhadlargepossessions；
for，\"everymanhasnaturallyarighttowhateverheneeds，\"andI
haverobbedothermenofallthatIpossessedbeyondmysubsistence。
Hence，sofarfromtheStatebeingunderobligationtome，Iamunderobligationtoit，thepropertywhichitreturnstomenotbeingminebutthatwithwhichtheStatefavorsme。Itfollows，accordingly，thattheStatemayimposeconditionsonitsgift，limittheuseImaymakeofit，accordingtoitsfancy，restrictandregulatemydispositionofit，myrighttobequeathit。\"Accordingtonature，[22]therightofpropertydoesnotextendbeyondthelifeofitsowner；themomenthedieshispossessionsarenolongerhisown。Thus，toprescribetheconditionsonwhichhemaydisposeofitisreallylesstochangehisrightinappearancethantoextenditineffect。\"Inanyeventasmytitleisaneffectofthesocialcontractitisprecariouslikethecontractitself；anewstipulationsufficestolimititortodestroyit。\"Thesovereign[23]maylegitimatelyappropriatetohimselfallproperty，aswasdoneinSpartainthetimeofLycurgus。\"Inourlayconventwhatevereachmonkpossessesisonlyarevocablegiftbytheconvent。
Inthesecondplace，thisconventisaseminary。Ihavenorighttobringupmychildreninmyownhouseandinmyownway。
\"Asthereasonofeachman[24]mustnotbethesolearbiterofhisrights，somuchlessshouldtheeducationofchildren，whichisofmoreconsequencetotheStatethantofathers，belefttotheintelligenceandprejudiceoftheirfathers。\"\"Ifpublicauthority，bytakingtheplaceoffathers，byassumingthisimportantfunction，thenacquirestheirrightsthroughfulfillingtheirduties，theyhavesomuchthelessreasontocomplaininasmuchastheymerelyundergoachangeofname，and，underthetitleofcitizens，exerciseincommonthesameauthorityovertheirchildrenthattheyhaveseparatelyexercisedunderthetitleoffathers。\"
Inotherwordsyouceasetobeafather，but，inexchange，becomeaschoolinspector；oneisasgoodastheother，andwhatcomplainthaveyoutomake？SuchwasthecaseinthatperpetualarmycalledSparta；
there，thechildren，genuineregimentalchildren，equallyobeyedallproperlyformedmen。
\"Thuspubliceducation，withinlawsprescribedbythegovernmentandundermagistratesappointedbysovereignwill，isoneofthefundamentalmaximsofpopularorlegitimategovernment。\"
ThroughthisthecitizenisformedinAdvance。
\"Thegovernmentgivesthenationalformtosouls。[25]Nations，inthelongrun，arewhatthegovernmentmakesthem—soldiers，citizens，menwhensodisposed，apopulace，canailleifitpleases，\"beingfashionedbytheireducation。\"Wouldyouobtainanideaofpubliceducation？ReadPlato’s’Republic。’[26]……Thebestsocialinstitutionsarethosethebestqualifiedtochangeman’snature，todestroyhisabsolutebeing，togivehimarelativebeing，andtoconvertselfintothecommonunity，sothateachindividualmaynotregardhimselfasonebyhimself，butapartoftheunity，andnolongersensitivebutthroughthewhole。Aninfant，onopeningitseyes，mustbeholdthecommonpatrimonyand，tothedayofitsdeath，beholdthatonly……HeshouldbedisciplinedsoasnevertocontemplatetheindividualexceptinhisrelationswiththebodyoftheState。\"
SuchwasthepracticeofSparta，andthesoleaimofthe\"greatLycurgus。\"—
\"Allbeingequalthroughthelaw，theymustbebroughtuptogetherandinthesamemanner。\"\"Thelawmustregulatethesubjects，theorderandtheformoftheirstudies。\"Theymust，attheveryleast，takepartinpublicexercises，inhorse—races，inthegamesofstrengthandofagilityinstituted\"toaccustomthemtolaw，equality，fraternity，andcompetition；\"toteachthemhow\"toliveundertheeyesoftheirfellow—citizensandtocravepublicapplause。\"
Throughthesegamestheybecomedemocratsfromtheirearlyyouth，since，theprizesbeingawarded，notthroughthearbitrarinessofmasters，butthroughthecheersofspectators，theyaccustomthemselvestorecognizingassovereignthelegitimatesovereignty，consistingoftheverdictoftheassembledpeople。TheforemostinterestoftheStateis，always，toformthewillsofthosebywhichitlasts，topreparethevotesthataretomaintainit，touprootpassionsinthesoulthatmightbeopposedtoit，toimplantpassionsthatwillprovefavorabletoit，tofixfirmlywiththebreastsofitsfuturecitizensthesentimentsandprejudicesitwillatsometimeneed。[27]Ifitdoesnotsecurethechildrenitwillnotpossesstheadults，Novicesinaconventmustbeasmonks，otherwise，whentheygrowup，theconventwillnolongerexist。
Finally，ourlayconventhasitsownreligion，alayreligion。IfI
possessanyotheritisthroughitscondescensionandunderrestrictions。Itis，bynature，hostiletootherassociationsthanitsown；theyarerivals，theyannoyit，theyabsorbthewillandpervertthevotesofitsmembers。
\"ToensureafulldeclarationofthegeneralwillitisanimportantmatternottoallowanyspecialsocietyintheState，andthateachcitizenshouldpronounceaccordingtoitalone。\"[28]
\"Whateverbreaksupsocialunityisworthless，\"anditwouldbebetterfortheStateiftherewerenoChurch。—
Notonlyiseverychurchsuspiciousbut，ifIamaChristian，mybeliefisregardedunfavorably。Accordingtothisnewlegislator\"nothingismoreopposedtothesocialspiritsthanChristianity……AsocietyoftrueChristianswouldnolongerformasocietyofmen。\"
For，\"theChristianpatrimonyisnotofthisworld。\"ItcannotzealouslyservetheState，beingboundbyitsconsciencetosupporttyrants。Itslaw\"preachesonlyservitudeanddependence……itismadeforaslave，\"andneverwillacitizenbemadeoutofaslave。
\"ChristianRepublic，eachofthesetwowordsexcludestheother。\"
Therefore，ifthefutureRepublicassentstomyprofessionofChristianity，itisontheunderstoodconditionthatmydoctrineshallbeshutupinmymind，withoutevenaffectingmyheart。IfIamaCatholic，（andtwenty—fiveoutoftwenty—sixmillionFrenchmenarelikeme），myconditionisworse。Forthesocialpactdoesnottolerateanintolerantreligion；anysectthatcondemnsothersectsisapublicenemy；\"whoeverpresumestosaythatthereisnosalvationoutsidethechurch，mustbedrivenoutoftheState。\"
ShouldIbe，finally，afree—thinker，apositivistorskeptic，mysituationislittlebetter。
\"Thereisacivilreligion，\"acatechism，\"aprofessionoffaith，ofwhichthesovereignhastherighttodictatethearticles，notexactlyasreligiousdogmasbutassentimentsofsocialimportwithoutwhichwecannotbeagoodcitizenoraloyalsubject。\"Thesearticlesembrace\"theexistenceofapowerful，intelligent，beneficent，foreseeingandprovidentdivinity，thefuturelife，thehappinessoftherighteous，thepunishmentofthewicked，thesacrednessofthesocialcontractandofthelaws。[29]Withoutforcinganyonetobelieveinthiscreed，whoeverdoesnotbelieveinitmustbeexpelledfromtheState；itisnecessarytobanishsuchpersonsnotonaccountofimpiety，butasunsociablebeings，incapableofsincerelylovinglawandjusticeand，ifneedbe，ofgivinguplifeforduty。\"
Takeheedthatthisprofessionoffaithbenotavainone，foranewinquisitionistotestitssincerity。
\"Shouldanyperson，afterhavingpubliclyrecognizedthesedogmas，actasanunbeliever，lethimbepunishedwithdeath。Hehascommittedthegreatestofcrimes:hehasliedbeforethelaw。\"
Truly，asIsaidabove，weareinaconventV。SOCIALCONTRACT，SUMMARY。
Completetriumphandlastexcessesofclassicreason。—Howitbecomesmonomania。—Whyitsworkisnotenduring。
Thesearticlesareallinevitableconsequencesofthesocialcontract。ThemomentIenterthecorporationIabandonmyownpersonality；Iabandon，bythisact，mypossessions，mychildren，mychurch，andmyopinions。Iceasetobeproprietor，father，Christianandphilosopher。Thestateismysubstituteinallthesefunctions。Inplaceofmywill，thereishenceforththepublicwill，thatistosay，intheory，themutableabsolutismofamajoritycountedbyheads，whileinfact，itistherigidabsolutismoftheassembly，thefaction，theindividualwhoiscustodianofthepublicauthority。—
Onthisprincipleanoutburstofboundlessconceittakesplace。TheveryfirstyearGrégoirestatesinthetribuneoftheConstituentAssembly，\"wemightchangereligionifwepleased，butwehavenosuchdesire。\"Alittlelaterthedesirecomes，anditistobecarriedout；
thatofHolbachisproposed，thenthatofRousseau，andtheydaregomuchfarther。InthenameofReason，ofwhichtheStatealoneistherepresentativeandinterpreter，theyundertaketounmakeandmakeover，inconformitywithReasonandwithReasononly，allcustoms，festivals，ceremonies，andcostumes，theera，thecalendar，weightsandmeasures，thenamesoftheseasons，months，weeksanddays，ofplacesandmonuments，familyandbaptismalnames，complimentarytitles，thetoneofdiscourse，themodeofsalutation，ofgreeting，ofspeakingandofwriting，insuchafashion，thattheFrenchman，asformerlywiththepuritanortheQuaker，remodeledeveninhisinwardsubstance，exposes，throughthesmallestdetailsofhisconductandexterior，thedominanceoftheall—powerfulprinciplewhichrefashionshisbeingandtheinflexiblelogicwhichcontrolshisthoughts。Thisconstitutesthefinalresultandcompletetriumphoftheclassicspirit。Installedinnarrowbrains，incapableofentertainingtworelatedideas，itistobecomeacoldorfuriousmonomania，fiercelyandunrelentinglydestroyingapastitcurses，andattemptingtoestablishamillennium，andallinthenameofanillusorycontract，atonceanarchicalanddespotic，whichunfettersinsurrectionandjustifiesdictatorship；alltoendinaconflictingsocialorderresemblingsometimesadrunkenorgyofdemons，andsometimesaSpartanconvent；allaimedatreplacingtherealhumanbeing，slowlyformedbyhispastwithanimprovisedrobot，who，throughitsowndebility，willcollapsewhentheexternalandmechanicalforcethatkeepsitupwillnolongersustainit。
Notes:
[1]Barrère，\"Pointdujour，\"No。1，（June15，1789）。\"Youaresummonedtogivehistoryafreshstart。\"
[2]Condorcet，ibid。，\"Tableaudesprogrèsdel’esprithumain，\"thetenthepoch。\"Themethodsofthemathematicalsciences，appliedtonewobjects，haveopenednewroadstothemoralandpoliticalsciences。\"—
Cf。Rousseau，inthe\"ContratSocial，\"themathematicalcalculationofthefractionofsovereigntytowhicheachindividualisentitled。
[3]Saint—Lambert，\"Catéchismeuniversel，\"thefirstdialogue，p。
17。
[4]Condorcet，ibid。，ninthepoch。\"Fromthissingletruththepublicistshavebeenabletoderivetherightsofman。\"
[5]RousseaustillentertainedadmirationforMontesquieubut，atthesametime，withsomereservation；afterwards，however，thetheorydevelopeditself，everyhistoricalrightbeingrejected。\"Then，\"saysCondorcet，（ibid。，ninthepoch），\"theyfoundthemselvesobligedabandonafalseandcraftypolicywhich，forgetfulofmenderivingequalrightsthroughtheirnature，attemptedatonetimetoestimatethoseallowedtothemaccordingtoextentofterritory，thetemperatureoftheclimate，thenationalcharacter，thewealthofthepopulation，thedegreeofperfectionoftheircommerceandindustries，andagaintoapportionthesamerightsunequallyamongdiverseclassesofmen，bestowingthemonbirth，richesandprofessions，andthuscreatingopposinginterestsandopposingpowers，forthepurposeofsubsequentlyestablishinganequilibriumalonerenderednecessarybytheseinstitutionsthemselvesandwhichthedangeroftheirtendenciesbynomeanscorrects。\"
[6]Condillac，\"Logique。\"
[7]\"HistoiredeFranceparEstampes，\"1789。（Inthecollectionofengravings，BibliothequeNationaledeParis。）
[8]Mme。deGenlis，\"SouvenirsdeFélicie，\"371—391。
[9]DeTocqueville，\"L’Ancienrégime，\"237。—Cf。\"L’an2440，\"byMercier，III。vols。Oneoftheselovelydaydreamsinallitsdetailmaybefoundhere。Theworkwasfirstpublishedin1770。\"TheRevolution，\"saysoneofthecharacters，\"wasbroughtaboutwithoutaneffort，throughtheheroismofagreatman，aroyalphilosopherworthyofpower，becausehedespisedit，\"etc。（TomeII。109。）
[10]\"MémoiresdeM。Bouillé，\"p。70。—Cf。Barante，\"Tableaudelalitt。fran？aiseaudixhuitièmesiècle，\"p。318。\"Civilizationandenlightenmentweresupposedtohaveallayedallpassionsandsoftenedallcharacters。Itseemedasifmoralityhadbecomeeasyofpracticeandthatthebalanceofsocialorderwassowelladjustedthatnothingcoulddisturbit。\"
[11]SeeinRousseau，inthe\"LettreàM。deBeaumont，\"asceneofthisdescription，theestablishmentofdeismandtoleration，associatedwithasimilardiscourse。
[12]RouxetBuchez，\"Histoireparlementaire，\"IV。322，theaddressmadeonthe11thFeb。，1790。\"Whatanaffectingandsublimeaddress，\"
saysadeputy。ItwasgreetedbytheAssembly，with\"unparalleledapplause。\"Thewholeaddressoughttohavebeenquotedentire。
[13]Thenumberofcerebralcellsisestimated（thecorticallayer）
attwelvehundredmillions（in1880）andthefibersbindingthemtogetheratfourthousandmillions。（Todayin1990itisthoughtthatthebraincontainsonemillionmillionneuronsandmanytimesmorefibers。SR。）
[14]Inhisbest—sellingbook\"TheBlindWatchmaker\"，（Published1986）thebiologistRichardDawkinswrites:\"Allappearancestothecontrary，theonlywatchmakerinnatureistheblindforcesofphysics，albeitdeployedinaveryspecialway。Atruewatchmakerhasforesight:hedesignshiscogsandsprings，andplanstheirinterconnections，withafuturepurposeinhismind’seye。Naturalselection，theblind，unconscious，automaticprocesswhichDarwindiscovered，andwhichwenowknowistheexplanationfortheexistenceandapparentlypurposefulformofalllife，hasnopurposeinmind。Ithasnomindandnomind’seye。itdoesnotplanforthefuture。Ithasnovision，noforesight，nosightatall。Ifitcanbesaidtoplaytheroleofwatchmakerinnature，itistheblindwatchmaker。\"（SR。）
[15]AlreadyMichelMontaigne（1533—1592）hadnotedman’stendencytoover—estimatehisownpowersofjudgment:
’So，toreturntomyself，thesolefeatureforwhichIholdmyselfinsomeesteemisthatinwhichnomanhaseverthoughthimselfdefective。Myself—approbationiscommon，andsharedbyall。Forwhohaseverconsideredhimselflackingincommonsense？Thiswouldbeaself—contradictoryproposition。Lackofsenseisadiseasethatneverexistswhenitisseen；itismosttenaciousandstrong，yetthefirstglancefromthepatient’seyepiercesitthroughanddispersesit，asadensemistisdispersedbythesun’sbeams。Toaccuseoneselfwouldamounttoself—absolution。Thereneverwasastreet—porterorasillywomanwhowasnotsureofhavingasmuchsenseaswasnecessary。Wereadilyrecognizeinothersasuperiorityincourage，physicalstrength，experience，agility，orbeauty。Butasuperiorjudgmentweconcedetonobody。Andwethinkthatwecouldourselveshavediscoveredthereasonswhichoccurnaturallytoothers，ifonlywehadlookedinthesamedirection。’）（SR。）
[16]Myfather’scousin，ablack—smithissuefromalonglineofcountryblack—smiths，bornin1896，usedtosaythatthebasicprincipleelevatingchildrenwastoensure\"thatthechildnevershouldbeabletoexcludethepossibilityofgoodthrashing。\"（SR）。
[17]Rousseau，\"Contratsocial，\"I，ch。7；III。ch。13，14，15，18；
IV。ch。1。—Cf。Condorcet，ninthepoch。
[18]Rousseau，\"Contratsocial，\"III，1，18；IV，3。
[19]DeTocqueville，\"L’Ancienrégime，\"bookII。entire，andbookIII。ch。3。
[20]Rousseau，\"Contratsocial。\"I。6。
[21]IbidemI。9。\"TheStateinrelationtoitsmembersismasterofalltheirpossessionsaccordingtothesocialcompact……
possessorsareconsideredasdepositariesofthepublicwealth。\"
[22]Rousseau，\"Discourssurl’Economiepolitique，\"308。
[23]Ibid。\"Emile，\"bookV。175。
[24]Rousseau，\"Discourssurl’Economiepolitique，\"302
[25]Rousseau，onthe\"GovernmentdePologne，\"277，283，287。
[26]Ibid。\"Emile，\"bookI。
[27]Morelly，\"Codedelanature。\"\"Attheageoffiveallchildrenshouldberemovedtheirfamiliesandbroughtupincommon，atthechargeoftheState，inauniformmanner。\"Asimilarproject，perfectlySpartan，wasfoundamongthepapersofSt。—Just。
[28]Rousseau，\"Contratsocial，\"II。3；IV。8。
[29]Cf。Mercier，\"L’an2240，\"I。ch。17and18。From1770on，hetracestheprogrammeofasystemofworshipsimilartothatoftheThéophilanthropists，thechapterbeingentitled:\"Passiéloignéqu’onpense。\"
BOOKFOURTH。THEPROPAGATIONOFTHEDOCTRINE。
CHAPTERI。
SUCCESSOFTHISPHILOSOPHYINFRANCE。—FAILUREOFTHESAME
PHILOSOPHYINENGLAND。
Severalsimilartheorieshaveinthepasttraversedtheimaginationofmen，andsimilartheoriesarelikelydosoagain。Inallagesandinallcountries，itsufficedthatman’sconceptofhisownnaturechangedfor，asanindirectconsequence，newutopiasanddiscoverieswouldsproutinthefieldsofpoliticsandreligion。[1]—
Butthisdoesnotsufficeforthepropagationofthenewdoctrinenor，moreimportant，fortheorytobeputintopractice。AlthoughborninEngland，thephilosophyoftheeighteenthcenturycouldnotdevelopitselfinEngland；thefeverfordemolitionandreconstructionremainedbutbrieflyandsuperficialthere。Deism，atheism，materialism，skepticism，ideology，thetheoryofthereturntonature，theproclamationsoftherightsofman，allthetemeritiesofBolingbroke，Collins，Toland，TindalandMandeville，theboldideasofHume，Hartley，JamesMillandBentham，alltherevolutionarydoctrines，weresomanyhotbedplantsproducedhereandthere，intheisolatedstudiesofafewthinkers:outintheopen，afterbloomingforawhile，subjecttoavigorouscompetitionwiththeoldvegetationtowhichthesoilbelonged，theyfailed[2]。—Onthecontrary，inFrance，theseedimportedfromEngland，takesrootandspreadswithextraordinaryvigor。AftertheRegencyitisinfullbloom[3]。Likeanyspeciesfavoredbysoilandclimate，itinvadesallthefields，appropriatinglightandairtoitself，scarcelyallowinginitsshadeafewpunyspecimensofahostilespecies，asurvivorofanantiquefloralikeRollin，oraspecimenofaneccentricfloralikeSaint—
Martin。Withlargetreesanddensethickets，throughmassesofbrushwoodandlowplants，suchasVoltaire，Montesquieu，Rousseau，Diderot，d’AlembertandBuffon，orDuclos，Mably，Condillac，Turgot，Beaumarchais，BernadindeSaint—Pierre，BarthélemyandThomas，suchasacrowdofjournalists，compilersandconversationalists，ortheeliteofthephilosophical，scientificandliterarymultitude，itoccupiestheAcademy，thestage，thedrawingroomandthedebate。Alltheimportantpersonsofthecenturyareitsoffshoots，andamongthesearesomeofthegrandesteverproducedbyhumanity。—Thiswaspossiblebecausetheseedhadfallenonsuitableground，thatistosay，onthesoilinthehomelandoftheclassicspirit。Inthislandoftheraisonraisonnante[4]itnolongerencounterstheantagonistswhoimpededitsgrowthontheothersideoftheChannel，anditnotonlyimmediatelyacquiresvigorofsapbutthepropagatingorganwhichitrequiredaswell。
I。THEPROPAGATINGORGAN，ELOQUENCE。
Causesofthisdifference。—ThisartofwritinginFrance。—Itssuperiorityatthisepoch。—Itservesasthevehicleofnewideas。
—Booksarewrittenforpeopleoftheworld。—Thisaccountsforphilosophydescendingtothedrawingroom。
Thisorganisthe\"talentofspeech，eloquenceappliedtothegravestsubjects，thetalentformakingthingsclear。\"[5]\"Thegreatwritersofthisnation，\"saystheiradversary，\"expressthemselvesbetterthanthoseofanyothernation。Theirbooksgivebutlittleinformationtotruesavants，\"but\"throughtheartofexpressiontheyinfluencemen\"and\"themassofmen，constantlyrepelledfromthesanctuaryofthesciencesbythedrystyleandbadtasteof（other）
scientificwriters，cannotresisttheseductionsoftheFrenchstyleandmethod。\"Thustheclassicspiritthatfurnishestheideaslikewisefurnishesthemeansofconveyingthem，thetheoriesoftheeighteenthcenturybeinglikethoseseedsprovidedwithwingswhichfloatanddistributethemselvesonallsoils。Thereisnobookofthatdaynotwrittenforpeopleofthehighsociety，andevenforwomenofthisclass。InFontenelle’sdialoguesonthePluralityofworldstheprincipalpersonageisamarchioness。Voltairecomposeshis\"Métaphysique\"andhis\"EssaisurlesMoeurs\"forMadameduChatelet，andRousseauhis\"Emile\"forMadamed’Epinay。Condillacwrotethe\"TraitédesSensations\"fromsuggestionsofMademoiselleFerrand，andhesetsforthinstructionstoyoungladieshowtoreadhis\"Logique。\"
Baudeaudedicatesandexplainstoaladyhis\"TableauEconomique。\"
Diderot’smostprofoundworkisaconversationbetweenMademoiselledel’Espinasseandd’AlembertandBordeu[6]。Montesquieuhadplacedaninvocationtothemusesinthemiddleofthe\"EspritdesLois。\"Almosteveryworkisaproductofthedrawing—room，anditisalwaysonethat，beforethepublic，hasbeenpresentedwithitsbeginnings。Inthisrespectthehabitissostrongastolastuptotheendof1789；
theharanguesabouttobemadeintheNationalAssemblyarealsopassagesofbravurapreviouslyrehearsedbeforeladiesataneveningentertainment。TheAmericanAmbassador，apracticalman，explainstoWashingtonwithsoberironythefineacademicandliteraryparadeprecedingthepoliticaltournamentinpublic[7]。
\"Thespeechesaremadebeforehandinasmallsocietyofyoungmenandwomen，amongthemgenerallythefairfriendofthespeakerisone，orelsethefairwhomhemeanstomakehisfriend，；andthesocietyverypolitelygivetheirapprobation，unlesstheladywhogivesthetonetothatcirclechancestoreprehendsomething，whichisofcoursealtered，ifnotamended。\"
Itisnotsurprising，withcustomsofthiskind，thatprofessionalphilosophersshouldbecomemenofsociety。Atnotimeorinanyplacehavetheybeensotothesameextent，norsohabitually。Thegreatdelightofamanofgeniusoroflearninghere，saysanEnglishtraveler，istoreignoverabrilliantassemblyofpeopleoffashion[8]。WhilstinEnglandtheyburythemselvesmoroselyintheirbooks，livingamongstthemselvesandappearinginsocietyonlyonconditionof\"doingsomepoliticaldrudgery，\"thatofjournalistorpamphleteerintheserviceofaparty，inFrancetheydineouteveryevening，andconstitutetheornamentsandamusementofthedrawing—
roomstowhichtheyresorttoconverse[9]。Thereisnotahouseinwhichdinnersaregiventhathasnotitstitularphilosopher，and，lateron，itseconomistandmanofscience。Inthevariousmemoirs，andinthecollectionsofcorrespondence，wetrackthemfromonedrawingroomtoanother，fromonechateautoanother，VoltairetoCireyatMadameduChatelet’s，andthenhome，atFerneywherehehasatheaterandentertainsallEurope；RousseautoMadamed’Epinay’s，andM。deLuxembourg’s；theAbbéBarthelemytotheDuchessedeChoiseul’s；
Thomas，MarmontelandGibbontoMadameNecker’s；theencyclopediststod’Holbach’sampledinners，totheplainanddiscreettableofMadameGeoffrin，andtothelittledrawingroomofMademoiselledeL’Espinasse，allbelongingtothegreatcentralstatedrawing—room，thatistosay，totheFrenchAcademy，whereeachnewlyelectedmemberappearstoparadehisstyleandobtainfromapolishedbodyhiscommissionofmasterintheartofdiscourse。Suchapublicimposesonanauthortheobligationofbeingmoreawriterthanaphilosopher。
Thethinkerisexpectedtoconcernhimselfwithhissentencesasmuchaswithhisideas。Heisnotallowedtobeamerescholarinhiscloset，asimpleerudite，divingintofoliosinGermanfashion，ametaphysicianabsorbedwithhisownmeditations，havinganaudienceofpupilswhotakenotes，and，asreaders，mendevotedtostudyandwillingtogivethemselvestrouble，aKant，whoformsforhimselfaspeciallanguage，whowaitsforapublictocomprehendhimandwholeavestheroominwhichhelaborsonlyforthelecture—roominwhichhedelivershislectures。Here，onthecontrary，inthematterofexpression，allareexpertsandevenprofessional。Themathematiciand’Alembertpublishesasmalltreatiseonelocution；Buffon，thenaturalistpronouncesadiscourseonStyle；thelegistMontesquieucomposesanessayonTaste；thepsychologistCondillacwritesavolumeontheartofwriting。Inthisconsiststheirgreatestglory；
philosophyowesitsentryintosocietytothem。Theywithdrewitfromthestudy，theclosed—societyandtheschool，tointroduceitintocompanyandintoconversation。
II。ITSMETHOD。
Owingtothismethoditbecomespopular。
\"MadamelaMaréchale，\"saysoneofDiderot’spersonages，[10]。\"I
mustconsiderthingsfromasomewhathigherpointofview。\"—\"AshighasyoupleasesolongasIunderstandyou。\"—\"Ifyoudonotunderstandmeitwillbemyfault。\"—\"Youareverypolite，butyoumustknowthatIhavestudiednothingbutmyprayer。book。\"—Thatmakesnodifference；theprettywoman，ablyledon，beginstophilosophizewithoutknowingit，arrivingwithouteffortatthedistinctionbetweengoodandevil，comprehendinganddecidingonthehighestdoctrinesofmoralityandreligion。—Suchistheartoftheeighteenthcentury，andtheartofwriting。Peopleareaddressedwhoareperfectlyfamiliarwithlife，butwhoarecommonlyignorantoforthography，whoarecuriousinalldirections，butillpreparedforany；theobjectistobringtruthdowntotheirlevel[11]。Scientificortooabstracttermsareinadmissible；theytolerateonlythoseusedtoordinaryconversation。Andthisisnoobstacle；itiseasiertotalkphilosophyinthislanguagethantouseitfordiscussingprecedenceandclothes。For，ineveryabstractquestionthereissomeleadingandsimpleconceptiononwhichtherestdepends，thoseofunity，proportion，massandmotioninmathematics；thoseoforgan，functionandbeinginphysiology；thoseofsensation，pain，pleasureanddesireinpsychology；thoseofutility，contractandlawinpoliticsandmorality；thoseofcapital，production，value，exchangeinpoliticaleconomy，andthe，sameintheothersciences，allofthesebeingconceptionsderivedfrompassingexperience；fromwhichitfollowsthat，inappealingtocommonexperiencebymeansofafewfamiliarcircumstances，suchasshortstories，anecdotes，agreeabletales，andthelike，theseconceptionsarefashionedanewandrenderedprecise。Thisbeingaccomplished，almosteverythingisaccomplished；
fornothingthenremainsbuttoleadthelisteneralongstepbystep，flightbyflight，totheremotestconsequences。
\"WillMadamelaMaréchalehavethekindnesstorecallmydefinition？\"—\"Irememberitwell—doyoucallthatadefinition？\"
—\"Yes。\"—\"That，then，isphilosophy！\"—\"Admirable！\"—\"AndI
havebeenphilosophical？\"—\"Asyoureadprose，withoutbeingawareofit。\"
Therestissimplyamatterofreasoning，thatistosay，ofleadingon，ofputtingquestionsintherightorder，andofanalysis。
Withtheconceptionthusrenewedandrectifiedthetruthnearestathandisbroughtout，thenoutofthis，asecondtruthrelatedtothefirstone，andsoontotheend，nootherobligationbeinginvolvedinthismethodbutthatofcarefullyadvancingstepbystep，andofomittingnointermediarystep。—Withthismethodoneisabletoexplainall，tomakeeverythingunderstood，evenbywomen，andevenbywomenofsociety。Intheeighteenthcenturyitformsthesubstanceofalltalents，thewarpofallmasterpieces，thelucidity，popularityandauthorityofphilosophy。The\"Eloges\"ofFontenelle，the\"Philosopheignorantetleprinciped’action\"byVoltaire，the\"
LettreàM。deBeaumont，\"andthe\"VicaireSavoyard\"byRousseau，the\"Traitédel’homme\"andthe\"époquesdelaNature\"byBuffon，the\"
Dialoguessurlesblés\"byGaliani，the\"Considérations\"byd’Alembert，onmathematics，the\"LanguedesCalculs\"andthe\"Logique\"byCondillac，and，alittlelater，the\"ExpositiondusystèmeduMonde\"byLaplace，and\"Discoursgénéraux\"byBichatandCuvier；allarebasedonthismethod[12]。Finally，thisisthemethodwhichCondillacerectsintoatheoryunderthenameofideology，soonacquiringtheascendancyofadogma，andwhichthenseemstosumupallmethods。Attheveryleastitsumsuptheprocessbywhichthephilosophersofthecenturyobtainedtheiraudience，propagatedtheirdoctrineandachievedtheirsuccess。
III。ITSPOPULARITY。
Owingtostyleitbecomespleasing。—Twostimulantspeculiartothe18thcentury，coarsehumorandirony。
Thankstothismethodonecanbeunderstood；but，toberead，somethingmoreisnecessary。Icomparetheeighteenthcenturytoacompanyofpeoplearoundatable；itisnotsufficientthatthefoodbeforethembewellprepared，wellserved，withinreachandeasytodigest，butitisimportantthatitshouldbesomechoicedishor，betterstill，somedainty。TheintellectisEpicurean；letussupplyitwithsavory，delicateviandsadaptedtoitstaste；itwilleatsomuchthemoreowingtoitsappetitebeingsharpenedbysensuality。
Twospecialcondimentsenterintothecuisineofthiscentury，and，accordingtothehandthatmakesuseofthem，theyfurnishallliterarydisheswithacoarseordelicateseasoning。InanEpicureansociety，towhichareturntonatureandtherightsofinstinctarepreached，voluptuousimagesandideaspresentthemselvesinvoluntarily；thisistheappetizing，excitingspice—box。Eachguestatthetableusesorabusesit；manyemptyitsentirecontentsontheirplate。AndIdonotalludemerelytotheliteraturereadinsecret，totheextraordinarybooksMadamed’Audlan，governesstotheFrenchroyalchildren，peruses，andwhichstrayoffintothehandsofthedaughtersofLouisXV，[13]nortootherbooks，stillmoreextraordinary，[14]inwhichphilosophicalargumentsappearasaninterludebetweenfilthandtheillustrations，andwhicharekeptbytheladiesofthecourtontheirtoilet—tables，underthetitleof\"HeuresdeParis。\"Ireferheretothegreatmen，tothemastersofthepublicintellect。WiththeexceptionofBuffon，allputpimentointotheirsauces，thatistosay，loosetalkorcoarsenessofexpression。Wefindthiseveninthe\"EspritdesLois；\"thereisanenormousamountofit，openandcoveredup，inthe\"LettresPersanes。\"
Diderot，inhistwogreatnovels，putsitinbyhandfuls，asifduringanorgy。Theteethcrunchonitlikesomanygrainsofpepper，oneverypageofVoltaire。Wefindit，notonlypiquant，butstrongandofburningintensity，inthe\"NouvelleHélo？se，\"scoresoftimesin\"
Emile，\"and，inthe\"Confessions，\"fromoneendtotheother。Itwasthetasteoftheday。M。deMalesherbes，souprightandsograve，committed\"LaPucelle\"tomemoryandrecitedit。WehavefromthepenofSaint—Just，thegloomiestofthe\"Mountain，\"apoemaslasciviousasthatofVoltaire，whileMadameRoland，thenoblestoftheGirondins，hasleftusconfessionsasventuresomeandspecificasthoseofRousseau[15]。—Ontheotherhandthereisasecondbox，thatcontainingtheoldGallicsalt，thatistosay，humorandraillery。Itsmouthiswideopeninthehandsofaphilosophyproclaimingthesovereigntyofreason。WhateveriscontrarytoReasonistoitabsurdandthereforeopentoridicule。Themomentthesolemnhereditarymaskcoveringupanabuseisbrusquelyandadroitlytornaside，wefeelacuriousspasm，thecornersofourmouthstretchingapartandourbreastheavingviolently，asatakindofsuddenrelief，anunexpecteddeliverance，experiencingasenseofourrecoveredsuperiority，ofourrevengebeinggratifiedandofanactofjusticehavingbeenperformed。Butitdependsonthemodeinwhichthemaskisstruckoffwhetherthelaughshallbeinturnlightorloud，suppressedorunbridled，nowamiableandcheerful，ornowbitterandsardonic。Humor（laplaisanterie）comportswithallaspects，frombuffoonerytoindignation；noliteraryseasoningaffordssuchavariety，orsomanymixtures，noronethatsowellentersintocombinationwiththatabove—mentioned。Thetwotogether，fromthemiddleagesdown，formtheprincipalingredientsemployedbytheFrenchcuisineinthecompositionofitsmostagreeabledainties，—
fables，tales，witticisms，jovialsongsandwaggeries，theeternalheritageofagood—humored，mockingpeople，preservedbyLaFontaineathwartthepompandsobrietyoftheseventeenthcentury，and，intheeighteenth，reappearingeverywhereatthephilosophicbanquet。Itscharmisgreattothebrilliantcompanyatthistable，soamplyprovided，whoseprincipaloccupationispleasureandamusement。Itisallthegreaterbecause，onthisoccasion，thepassingdispositionisinharmonywithhereditaryinstinct，andbecausethetasteoftheepochisfortifiedbythenationaltaste。Addtoallthistheexquisiteartofthecooks，theirtalentincommingling，inapportioningandinconcealingthecondiments，invaryingandarrangingthedishes，thecertaintyoftheirhand，thefinesseoftheirpalate，theirexperienceinprocesses，inthetraditionsandpracticeswhich，alreadyforahundredyears，formofFrenchprosethemostdelicatenourishmentoftheintellect。Itisnotstrangetofindthemskilledinregulatinghumanspeech，inextractingfromititsquintessenceandindistillingitsfulldelight。
IV。THEMASTERS。
Theartandprocessesofthemasters。—Montesquieu。—Voltaire。
—Diderot。—Rousseau。—\"TheMarriageofFigaro。\"
Inthisrespectfouramongthemaresuperior，Montesquieu，Voltaire，DiderotandRousseau。Itseemssufficienttomentiontheirnames。ModernEuropehasnogreaterwriters。Andyettheirtalentmustbecloselyexaminedtoproperlycomprehendtheirpower。—IntoneandstyleMontesquieuisthefirst。Nowriterismoremasterofhimself，moreoutwardlycalm，moresureofhismeaning。Hisvoiceisneverboisterous；heexpressesthemostpowerfulthoughtswithmoderation。Thereisnogesticulation；exclamations，theabandonmentofimpulse，allthatisirreconcilablewithdecorumisrepugnanttohistact，hisreserve，hisdignity。Heseemstobealwaysaddressingaselectcircleofpeoplewithacuteminds，andinsuchawayastorenderthemateverymomentconsciousoftheiracuteness。Noflatterycouldbemoredelicate；wefeelgratefultohimformakingussatisfiedwithourintelligence。Wemustpossesssomeintelligencetobeabletoreadhim，forhedeliberatelycurtailsdevelopmentsandomitstransitions；wearerequiredtosupplytheseandtocomprehendhishiddenmeanings。Heisrigorouslysystematicbutthesystemisconcealed，hisconcisecompletedsentencessucceedingeachotherseparately，likesomanypreciouscoffersorcaskets，nowsimpleandplaininaspect，nowsuperblychasedanddecorated，butalwaysfull。
Openthemandeachcontainsatreasure；hereisplacedinnarrowcompassarichstoreofreflections，ofemotions，ofdiscoveries，ourenjoymentbeingthemoreintensebecausewecaneasilyretainallthisforamomentinthepalmofourhand。\"Thatwhichusuallyformsagrandconception，\"hehimselfsays，\"isathoughtsoexpressedastorevealanumberofotherthoughts，andsuddenlydisclosingwhatwecouldnotanticipatewithoutpatientstudy。\"This，indeed，ishismanner；hethinkswithsummaries；heconcentratestheessenceofdespotisminachapterofthreelines。Thesummaryitselfoftenbearstheairofanenigma，ofwhichthecharmistwofold；wehavethepleasureofcomprehensionaccompanyingthesatisfactionofdivining。
Inallsubjectshemaintainsthissupremediscretion，thisartofindicatingwithoutenforcing，thesereticences，thesmilethatneverbecomesalaugh。
\"Inmydefenseofthe’EspritdesLois，\"’hesays，\"thatwhichgratifiesmeisnottoseevenerabletheologianscrushedtothegroundbuttoseethemglidedowngently。\"
Heexcelsintranquilirony，inpolisheddisdain，[16]indisguisedsarcasm。HisPersiansjudgeFranceasPersians，andwesmileattheirerrors；unfortunatelythelaughisnotagainstthembutagainstourselves，fortheirerrorisfoundtobeaverity[17]。Thisorthatletter，inasobervein，seemsacomedyattheirexpensewithoutreflectinguponus，fullofMuslimprejudicesandoforientalconceit；[18]reflectamoment，andourconceit，inthisrelation，appearsnoless。Blowsofextraordinaryforceandreacharegiveninpassing，asifthoughtlessly，againstexistinginstitutions，againstthetransformedCatholicismwhich\"inthepresentstateofEurope，cannotlastfivehundredyears，\"againstthedegeneratemonarchywhichcausesusefulcitizenstostarvetofattenparasitecourtiers[19]。