Suchisthecoursetobepursuedwithallthesciences，andespeciallywiththemoralandpoliticalsciences。Toconsiderinturneachdistinctprovinceofhumanactivity，todecomposetheleadingnotionsoutofwhichweformourconceptions，thoseofreligion，societyandgovernment，thoseofutility，wealthandexchange，thoseofjustice，rightandduty。Toreverttomanifestfacts，tofirstexperiences，tothesimplecircumstancesinwhichtheelementsofourideasareincluded；toextricatefromthesethepreciouslodewithoutomissionormixture；torecomposeourideawiththese，todefineitsmeaninganddetermineitsvalue；tosubstituteforthevagueandvulgarnotionwithwhichwestartedouttheprecisescientificdefinitionwearriveat，andfortheimpuremetalwereceivedtherefinedmetalwerecovered，constitutedtheprevalentmethodtaughtbythephilosophersunderthenameofanalysis，andwhichsumsupthewholeprogressofthecentury。—Uptothispoint，andnotfarther，theyareright；truth，everytruth，isfoundinobservablethings，andonlyfromthesecanitbederived；thereisnootherpathwayleadingtodiscovery。—Theoperation，undoubtedly，isproductiveonlywhentheveinisrich，andwepossessthemeansofextractingtheore。Toobtainajustnotionofgovernment，ofreligion，ofright，ofwealth，amanmustbeahistorianbeforehand，ajurisconsultandeconomist，andhavegatheredupmyriadoffacts；and，besidesallthis，hemustpossessavasterudition，anexperiencedandprofessionalperspicacity。Iftheseconditionsareonlypartiallycompliedwith，theresultwillonlybeahalffinishedproductoradoubtfulalloy，afewroughdraftsofthesciences，therudimentsofpedagogyaswithRousseau，ofpoliticaleconomywithQuesnay，Smith，andTurgot，oflinguisticswithDesBrosses，andofarithmeticalmoralsandcriminallegislationwithBentham。Finally，ifnoneoftheseconditionsarecompliedwith，thesameeffortswill，inthehandsofphilosophicalamateursandoratoricalcharlatans，undoubtedlyonlyproducemischievouscompoundsanddestructiveexplosions。—Neverthelessgoodprocedureremainsgoodevenwhenignorantandtheimpetuousmenmakeabaduseofit；andifweoftodayresumetheabortiveeffortoftheeighteenthcentury，itshouldbewithintheguidelinestheysetout。
Notes:
[1]。\"Philosophi？naturalisprincipia，\"1687；\"Optics，\"1704。
[2]SeeconcerningthisdevelopmentComte’s\"PhilosophiePositive，\"
vol。I。—Atthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury，mathematicalinstrumentsarecarriedtosuchperfectionastowarrantthebeliefthatallphysicalphenomenamaybeanalyzed，light，electricity，sound，crystallization，heat，elasticity，cohesionandothereffectsofmolecularforces。—See\"Whewell’sHistoryoftheInductiveSciences。II。，III。
[3]ThetravelsofLaCondamineinPeruandofMaupertuisinLapland。
[4]Buffon，\"Théoriedelaterre，\"1749；\"EpoquesdelaNature，\"
1788。—\"Cartegéologiquedel’Auvergne，\"byDesmarets，1766。
[5]SeealecturebyM。Lacaze—DuthieronLamarck，\"RevueScientifique，\"III。276—311。
[6]Buffon，\"HistoireNaturelle，II。340:\"Alllivingbeingscontainavastquantityoflivingandactivemolecules。Vegetalandanimallifeseemtobeonlytheresultoftheactionsofallthesmalllivespeculiartoeachoftheactivemoleculeswhoselifeisprimitive。\"Cf。Diderot，\"Revued’Alembert。\"
[8]\"PhilosophiedeNewton，\"1738，and\"Physique，\"byVoltaire。—
Cf。duBois—Raymond，\"Voltairephysician，\"（RevuedesCoursScientifique，V。539），andSaigey，\"laPhysiquedeVoltaire，\"—\"HadVoltaire，\"writesLordBrougham，\"continuedtodevotehimselftoexperimentalphysicshewouldundoubtedlyhaveinscribedhisnameamongthoseofthegreatestdiscoverersofhisage。\"
[9]Seehis\"LanguedesCalculs，\"andhis\"ArtdeRaisonner。\"
[10]ForapopularexpositionoftheseideasseeVoltaire，passim，andparticularlythe\"Micromégas\"and\"LesOreillesduComtedeChesterfield。\"
[11]Cf。Buffon，ibid……I。31:\"Thosewhoimagineareplywithfinalcausesdonotreflectthattheytaketheeffectforthecause。
Therelationshipwhichthingsbeartoushavingnoinfluencewhateverontheirorigin，moralconveniencecanneverbecomeaphysicalexplanation。\"—Voltaire，\"Candide\":\"WhenHisHighMightinesssendsavesseltoEgyptisheinanyrespectembarrassedaboutthecomfortofthemicethathappentobeaboardofit？\"
[12]Buffon，ibid……\"Supplement，\"II。513；IV。（\"EpoquesdelaNature\"），65，167。Accordingtohisexperimentswiththecoolingofacannonballhebasedthefollowingperiods:Fromtheglowingfluidmassoftheplanettothefallofrain35，000years。Fromthebeginningoflifetoitsactualcondition40，000years。Fromitsactualconditiontotheentirecongealingofitandtheextinctionoflife93，000years。Hegivesthesefiguressimplyastheminima。Wenowknowthattheyaremuchtoolimited。
[13]Buffon，HistoireNaturelle，ib。I。12:\"Thefirsttruthderivedfromthispatientinvestigationofnatureis，perhaps，ahumiliatingtruthforman，thatoftakinghisplaceintheorderofanimals。\"
[14]Voltaire，\"Philosophie，Duprinciped’action:\"\"Allbeings，withoutexception，aresubjecttoinvariablelaws。\"
[15]Voltaire\"EssaysurlesM？urs，\"，chap。CXLVII。，thesummary；
\"Theintelligentreaderreadilyperceivesthathemustbelieveonlyinthosegreateventswhichappearplausible，andviewwithpitythefableswithwhichfanaticism，romantictasteandcredulityhaveatalltimesfilledtheworld。\"
[16]Notethisexpression，\"exegeticalmethods\"。（Chambersdefinesanexegetistasonewhointerpretsorexpounds。）TainereferstomethodswhichshouldallowtheJacobins，socialists，communists，andotherideologiststo，fromanirrefutableideaorexpression，todeduct，infer，concludeanddrawfirmand，tothem，irrefutableconclusions。（SR。）
[17]\"TraitédeMetaphysique，\"chap。I。\"Havingfallenonthislittleheapofmud，andwithnomoreideaofmanthanmanhasoftheinhabitantsofMarsandJupiter，IsetfootontheshoreoftheoceanofthecountryofCaffrariaandatoncebegantosearchforaman。I
encountermonkeys，elephantsandNegroes，withgleamsofimperfectintelligence，etc\"—Thenewmethodishereclearlyapparent。
[18]\"Introductionàl’EssaysurlesM？urs:DesSauvages。\"—
Buffon，in\"Epoquesdelanature，\"theseventhepoch，precedesDarwininhisideasonthemodificationsoftheusefulspeciesofanimals。
[19]Voltaire，\"Remarquesdel’essaysurlesM？urs。\"\"Wemayspeakofthispeopleinconnectionwiththeologybuttheyarenotentitledtoaprominentplaceinhistory。\"—\"EntretienentreA，B，C，\"theseventh。
[20]Franklindefinedmanasamakeroftools。
[21]Condorcet，\"Esquissed’untableauhistoriquedesprogrèsdel’esprithumain。\"
[22]Montesquieu:\"EspritdesLois，\"preface。\"I，atfirst，examinedmen，thinkingthat，inthisinfinitediversityoflawsandcustoms，theywerenotwhollygovernedbytheirfancies。IbroughtprinciplestobearandIfoundspecialcasesyieldingtothemasifnaturally，thehistoriesofallnationsbeingsimplytheresultofthese，eachspeciallawbeingconnectedwithanotherlawordependingonsomegenerallaw。\"
[23]Pinel，（1791），Esquirol（1838），onmentaldiseases。—
Prochaska，Legallois（1812）andthenFlourensforvivisection。—
HartleyandJamesMillattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyfollowCondillaconthesamepsychologicalroad；allcontemporarypsychologistshaveentereduponit。（Wundt，Helmholz，Fechner，inGermany，Bain，StuartMill，HerbertSpencerandCarpenter，inEngland）。
[24]Condillac，passim，andespeciallyinhislasttwoworksthe\"Logique，\"andthe\"LanguedesCalculs。\"
CHAPTERII。THECLASSICSPIRIT，THESECONDELEMENT。
Thisgrandandmagnificentsystemofnewtruthsresemblesatowerofwhichthefirststory，quicklyfinished，atoncebecomesaccessibletothepublic。Thepublicascendsthestructureandisrequestedbyitsconstructorstolookabout，notattheskyandatsurroundingspace，butrightbeforeit，towardstheground，sothatitmayatlastbecomefamiliarwiththecountryinwhichitlives。Certainly，thepointofviewisgood，andtheadviceiswellthought—out。Theconclusionthatthepublicwillhaveanaccurateviewisnotwarranted，forthestateofitseyesmustbeexamined，toascertainwhetheritisnearorfar—sighted，oriftheretinanaturally，orthroughhabit，issensitivetocertaincolors。InthesamewaytheFrenchoftheeighteenthcenturymustbeconsidered，thestructureoftheirinwardvision，thatistosay，thefixedformoftheirintelligencewhichtheyarebringingwiththem，unknowinglyandunwillingly，upupontheirnewtower。
I。THROUGHCOLOREDGLASSES。
Itssigns，durationandpower。—Itsoriginandpublicsupporters。
—Itsvocabulary，grammarandstyle。—Itsmethod，meritsanddefects。
Thisfixedintelligenceconsistsoftheclassicspirit，whichappliedtothescientificacquisitionsoftheperiod，producesthephilosophyofthecenturyandthedoctrinesoftheRevolution。Varioussignsdenoteitspresence，andnotablyitsoratorical，regularandcorrectstyle，whollyconsistingofready—madephrasesandcontiguousideas。Itlaststwocenturies，fromMalherbeandBalzactoDelilleanddeFontanes，andduringthislongperiod，nomanofintellect，savetwoorthree，andthenonlyinprivatememoirs，asinthecaseofSaint—Simon，alsoinfamiliarletterslikethoseofthemarquisandbaillydeMirabeau，eitherdaresorcanwithdrawhimselffromitsempire。Farfromdisappearingwiththeancientregimeitformsthematrixoutofwhicheverydiscourseanddocumentissues，eventhephrasesandvocabularyoftheRevolution。Now，whatismoreeffectivethanaready—mademold，enforced，accepted，inwhichbyvirtueofnaturaltendency，oftraditionandofeducation，everyonecanenclosetheirthinking？Thisone，accordingly，isahistoricforce，andofthehighestorder；tounderstanditletusconsiderhowitcameintobeing。——Itappearedtogetherwiththeregularmonarchyandpoliteconversation，anditaccompaniesthese，notaccidentally，butnaturallyandautomatically。Foritisproductofthenewsociety，ofthenewregimeanditscustoms:Imeanofanaristocracyleftidleduetheencroachingmonarchy，ofpeoplewellbornandwelleducatedwho，withdrawnfrompublicactivity，fallbackonconversationandpasstheirleisuresamplingthedifferentseriousorrefinedpleasuresoftheintellect。[1]Eventually，theyhavenootherrolenorinterestthantotalk，tolisten，toentertainthemselvesagreeablyandwithease，onallsubjects，graveorgay，whichmayinterestmenorevenwomenofsociety，that’stheirgreataffair。Intheseventeenthcenturytheyarecalled\"leshonnêtesgens\"[2]andfromnowonawriter，eventhemostabstract，addresseshimselftothem。\"A
gentleman，\"saysDescartes，\"neednothavereadallbooksnorhavestudiouslyacquiredallthatistaughtintheschools；\"andheentitleshislasttreatise，\"AsearchforTruthaccordingtonaturallight，whichalone，withoutaidofReligionorPhilosophy，determinesthetruthsagentlemanshouldpossessonallmattersformingthesubjectsofhisthoughts。\"[3]Inshort，fromoneendofhisphilosophytotheother，theonlyqualificationhedemandsofhisreadersis\"naturalgoodsense\"addedtothecommonstockofexperienceacquiredbycontactwiththeworld。—Asthesemakeuptheaudiencetheyarelikewisethejudges。\"Onemuststudythetasteofthecourt，\"saysMolière，[4]\"forinnoplaceareverdictsmorejust……Withsimplecommonsenseandintercoursewithpeopleofrefinement，ahabitofmindisthereobtainedwhich，withoutcomparison，formsamoreaccurate，judgmentofthingsthantherustyattainmentsofthepedants。\"Fromthistimeforth，itmaybesaidthatthearbiteroftruthandoftasteisnot，asbefore，aneruditeScaliger，butamanoftheworld，aLaRochefoucauld，oraTréville。[5]Thepedantand，afterhim，thesavant，thespecialist，issetaside。\"Truehonestpeople，\"saysNicoleafterPascal，\"requirenosign。Theyneednotbedivined；theyjoinintheconversationgoingonastheyentertheroom。Theyarenotstyledeitherpoetsorsurveyors，buttheyarethejudgesofallthese。\"[6]Intheeighteenthcenturytheyconstitutethesovereignauthority。Inthegreatcrowdofblockheadssprinkledwithpedants，thereis，saysVoltaire，\"asmallgroupapartcalledgoodsociety，which，rich，educatedandpolished，forms，youmightsay，theflowerofhumanity；itisforthisgroupthatthegreatestmenhavelabored；itisthisgroupwhichaccordssocialrecognition。\"[7]
Admiration，favor，importance，belongnottothosewhoareworthyofitbuttothosewhoaddressthemselvestothisgroup。\"In1789，\"saidtheAbbéMaury，\"theFrenchAcademyaloneenjoyedanyesteeminFrance，anditreallybestowedastanding。ThatoftheSciencessignifiednothinginpublicopinion，anymorethanthatofInscriptions……Thelanguagesisconsideredascienceforfools。
D’AlembertwasashamedofbelongingtotheAcademyofSciences。Onlyahandfulofpeoplelistentoamathematician，achemist，etc。butthemanofletters，thelecturer，hastheworldathisfeet。\"[8]—Undersuchastrongpressurethemindnecessarilyfollowsaliteraryandverbalrouteinconformitywiththeexigencies，theproprieties，thetastes，andthedegreeofattentionandofinstructionofitspublic。[9]Hencetheclassicmold，—formedoutofthehabitofspeaking，writingandthinkingforadrawingroomaudience。[10]
Thisisimmediatelyevidentinitsstyleandlanguage。BetweenAmyot，RabelaisandMontaigneontheonehand，andChateaubriand，VictorHugoandHonorédeBalzacontheother，classicFrenchcomesintobeinganddies。Fromtheveryfirstitisdescribedatthelanguageof\"honestpeople。\"Itisfashionednotmerelyforthem，butbythem，andVaugelas，[11]theirsecretary，devoteshimselfforthirtyyearstotheregistryofdecisionsaccordingtotheusagesonlyofgoodsociety。Hence，throughout，bothinvocabularyandingrammar，thelanguageisrefashionedoverandoveragain，accordingtothecastoftheirintellects，whichistheprevailingintellect。—
Inthefirstplacethevocabularyisdiminished:
*Mostofthewordsspeciallyemployedoneruditeandtechnicalsubjects，expressionsthataretooGreekortooLatin，termspeculiartotheschools，toscience，tooccupations，tothehousehold，areexcludedfromdiscourse；
*thosetoocloselydenotingaparticularoccupationorprofessionarenotconsideredproperingeneralconversation。
*Avastnumberofpicturesqueandexpressivewordsaredropped，allthatarecrude，gauloisornaifs，allthatarelocalandprovincial，orpersonalandmade—up，allfamiliarandproverbiallocutions，[12]manybrusque，familiarandfrankturnsofthought，everyhaphazard，tellingmetaphor，almosteverydescriptionofimpulsiveanddexterousutterancethrowingaflashoflightintotheimaginationandbringingintoviewtheprecise，coloredandcompleteform，butofwhichatoovividimpressionwouldruncountertotheproprietiesofpoliteconversation。
\"Oneimproperword，\"saidVaugelas，\"isallthatisnecessarytobringapersoninsocietyintocontempt，\"
and，ontheeveoftheRevolution，anobjectionabletermdenouncedbyMadamedeLuxembourgstillconsignsamantotherankof\"espèces，\"
becausecorrectexpressioniseveranelementofgoodmanners。—
Language，throughthisconstantscratching，isattenuatedandbecomescolorless:Vaugelasestimatesthatone—halfofthephrasesandtermsemployedbyAmyotaresetaside。[13]WiththeexceptionofLaFontaine，anisolatedandspontaneousgenius，whoreopenstheoldsources，andLaBruyère，aboldseeker，whoopensafreshsource，andVoltaireanincarnatedemonwho，inhisanonymousandpseudonymouswritings，givesthereintotheviolent，crudeexpressionsofhisinspiration，[14]thetermswhicharemostappropriatefallintodesuetude。Oneday，Gresset，inadiscourseattheAcademy，daresutterfourorfiveofthese，[15]relating，Ibelieve，tocarriagesandhead—dresses，whereuponmurmursatonceburstforth。Duringhislongretreathehadbecomeprovincialandlostthetouch。—Bydegrees，discoursesarecomposedof\"generalexpressions\"only。Theseareevenemployed，inaccordancewithBuffon’sprecept，todesignateconcreteobjects。Theyaremoreinconformitywiththepolishedcourtesywhichsmoothesover，appeases，andavoidsroughorfamiliarexpressions，towhichsomeviewsappeargrossorrudeunlesspartlyhiddenbyaveil。
Thismakesiteasierforthesuperficiallistener；prevailingtermsalonewillimmediatelyarousecurrentandcommonideas；theyareintelligibletoeverymanfromthesinglefactthathebelongstothedrawing—room；specialterms，onthecontrary，demandaneffortofthememoryoroftheimagination。Supposethat，inrelationtoFranksortosavages，Ishouldmention\"abattle—ax，\"whichwouldbeatonceunderstood；shouldImentiona\"tomahawk，\"ora\"francisque，\"[16]manywouldimaginethatIwasspeakingTeutonorIroquois。[17]Inthisrespectthemorefashionableandrefinedthestyle，themorepunctilioustheeffort。Everyappropriatetermisbanishedfrompoetry；ifonehappenstoentertheminditmustbeevadedorreplacedbyaparaphrase。Aneighteenthcenturypoetcanhardlypermithimselftoemploymorethanone—thirdofthedictionary，poeticlanguageatlastbecomessorestrictedastocompelamanwithanythingtosaynottoexpresshimselfinverse。[18]
Ontheotherhandthemoreyouprunethemoreyouthinout。ReducedtoaselectvocabularytheFrenchmandealswithfewersubjects，buthedescribesthemmoreagreeablyandmoreclearly。\"Courtesy，accuracy\"，（Urbanité，exactitude！），thesetwowords，bornatthesametimewiththeFrenchAcademy，describesinanutshellthereformofwhichitisthetool，andwhichthedrawing—room，byit，andalongsideofit，imposesonthepublic。Grandseigniorsinretirement，andunoccupiedfineladies，enjoytheexaminationofthesubtletiesofwordsforthepurposeofcomposingmaxims，definitionsandcharacters。Withadmirablescrupulousnessandinfinitelydelicatetact，writersandpeoplesocietyapplythemselvestoweighingeachwordandeachphraseinordertofixitssense，tomeasureitsforceandbearing，todetermineitsaffinities，useandconnectionsThisworkofprecisioniscarriedonfromtheearliestacademicians，Vaugelas，ChapelainandConrart，totheendoftheclassicepoch，intheSynonymesbyBauzéeandbyGirard，intheRemarquebyDuclos，intheCommentairebyVoltaireonCorneille，intheLycéebylaHarpe，[19]intheefforts，theexample，thepracticeandtheauthorityofthegreatandtheinferiorwritersofwhichallarecorrect。Neverdidarchitects，obligedtouseordinarybrokenhighwaystonesinbuilding，betterunderstandeachpiece，itsdimensions，itsshape，itsresistance，itspossibleconnectionsandsuitableposition。—Oncethiswaslearned，thetaskwastoconstructwiththeleasttroubleandwiththeutmostsolidity；thegrammarwasconsequentlychangedatthesametimeandinthesamewayasthedictionary。Hencenolongerpermittingthewordstoreflectthewayimpressionsandemotionswerefelt；theynowhadtoberegularlyandrigorouslyassignedaccordingtotheinvariablehierarchyofconcepts。Thewritermaynolongerbeginhistextwiththeleadingfigureorthemainpurposeofhisstory；thesettingisgivenandtheplacesassignedbeforehand。Eachpartofthediscoursehasitsownplace；noomissionortranspositionispermitted，aswasdoneinthesixteenthcentury[20]。Allpartsmustbeincluded，eachinitsdefiniteplace:atfirstthesubjectofthesentencewithitsappendices，thentheverb，thentheobjectdirect，and，finally，theindirectconnections。Inthiswaythesentenceformsagraduatedscaffolding，thesubstancecomingforemost，thenthequality，thenthemodesandvarietiesofthequality，justasagoodarchitectinthefirstplaceposeshisfoundation，thenthebuilding，thentheaccessories，economicallyandprudently，withaviewtoadapteachsectionoftheedificetothesupportofthesectionfollowingafterit。Nosentencedemandsanylessattentionthananother，noristhereanyinwhichonemaynotateverystepverifytheconnectionorincoherenceoftheparts。[21]—Theprocedureusedinarrangingasimplesentencealsogovernsthatoftheperiod，theparagraphandtheseriesofparagraphs；itformsthestyleasitformsthesyntax。Eachsmalledificeoccupiesadistinctposition，andbutone，inthegreattotaledifice。Asthediscourseadvances，eachsectionmustinturnfilein，neverbefore，neverafter，noparasiticmemberbeingallowedtointrude，andnoregularmemberbeingallowedtoencroachonitsneighbor，whileallthesemembersboundtogetherbytheirverypositionsmustmoveonward，combiningalltheirforcesononesinglepoint。Finally，wehaveforthefirsttimeinawriting，naturalanddistinctgroups，completeandcompactharmonies，noneofwhichinfringeontheothersorallowotherstoinfringeonthem。Itisnolongerallowabletowritehaphazard，accordingtothecapriceofone’sinspiration，todischargeone’sideasinbulk，toletoneselfbeinterruptedbyparentheses，tostringalonginterminablerowsofcitationsandenumerations。Anendisproposed；sometruthistobedemonstrated，somedefinitiontobeascertained，someconvictiontobebroughtabout；todothiswemustmarch，andeverdirectlyonward。
Order，sequence，progress，propertransitions，constantdevelopmentconstitutethecharacteristicsofthisstyle。Tosuchanextentisthispushed，thatfromtheveryfirst，personalcorrespondence，romances，humorouspieces，andallironicalandgallanteffusions，consistofmorselsofsystematiceloquence。[22]AttheH？telRambouillet，theexplanatoryperiodisdisplayedwithasmuchfullnessandasrigorouslyaswithDescarteshimself。OneofthewordsmostfrequentlyoccurringwithMme。deScudéryistheconjunctionfor（inFrenchcar）。Passionisworkedoutthroughclose—knitarguments。
Drawingroomcomplimentsstretchalonginsentencesasfinishedasthoseofanacademicaldissertation。Scarcelycompleted，theinstrumentalreadydisclosesitsaptitudes。Weareawareofitsbeingmadetoexplain，todemonstrate，topersuadeandtopopularize。
Condillac，acenturylater，isjustifiedinsayingthatitisinitselfasystematicmeansofdecompositionandofrecomposition，ascientificmethodanalogoustoarithmeticandalgebra。Attheveryleastitpossessestheincontestableadvantageofstartingwithafewordinaryterms，andofleadingthereaderalongwithfacilityandpromptness，byaseriesofsimplecombinations，uptotheloftiest。[23]Byvirtueofthis，in1789，theFrenchtongueranksaboveeveryother。TheBerlinAcademypromisesaprizetoforanyonewhobestcanexplainitspre—eminence。ItisspokenthroughoutEurope。
Nootherlanguageisusedindiplomacy。AsformerlywithLatin，itisinternational，andappearsthat，fromnowon，itistobethepreferredtoolwhenevermenaretoreason。
Itistheorganonlyofacertainkindofreasoning，laraisonraisonnante，thatrequiringtheleastpreparationforthought，givingitselfaslittletroubleaspossible，contentwithitsacquisitions，takingnopainstoincreaseorrenewthem，incapableof，orunwillingtoembracetheplenitudeandcomplexityofthefactsofreallife。Initspurism，initsdisdainoftermssuitedtotheoccasion，initsavoidanceoflivelysallies，intheextremeregularityofitsdevelopments，theclassicstyleispowerlesstofullyportrayortorecordtheinfiniteandvarieddetailsofexperience。Itrejectsanydescriptionoftheoutwardappearanceofreality，theimmediateimpressionsoftheeyewitness，theheightsanddepthsofpassion，thephysiognomy，atoncesocompositeyetabsolutepersonal，ofthebreathingindividual，inshort，thatuniqueharmonyofcountlesstraits，blendedtogetherandanimated，whichcomposenothumancharacteringeneralbutoneparticularpersonality，andwhichaSaint—Simon，aBalzac，oraShakespearehimselfcouldnotrenderiftherichlanguagetheyused，andwhichwasenhancedbytheirtemerities，didnotcontributeitssubtletiestothemultiplieddetailsoftheirobservation。[24]NeithertheBible，norHomer，norDante，norShakespeare[25]couldbetranslatedwiththisstyle。ReadHamlet’smonologueinVoltaireandseewhatremainsofit，anabstractpieceofdeclamation，withaboutasmuchoftheoriginalinitasthereisofOthelloinhisOrosmane。LookatHomerandthenatFenelonintheislandofCalypso；thewild，rockyisland，where\"gullsandothersea—birdswithlongwings，\"buildtheirnests，becomesinpureFrenchproseanorderlyparkarranged\"forthepleasureoftheeye。\"
Intheeighteenthcentury，contemporarynovelists，themselvesbelongingtotheclassicepoch，Fielding，Swift，Defoe，SterneandRichardson，areadmittedintoFranceonlyafterexcisionsandmuchweakening；theirexpressionsaretoofreeandtheirscenesaretoimpressive；theirfreedom，theircoarseness，theirpeculiarities，wouldformblemishes；thetranslatorabbreviates，softens，andsometimes，inhispreface，apologizesforwhatheretains。Roomisfound，inthislanguage，onlyforapartiallifelikeness，forsomeofthetruth，ascantyportion，andwhichconstantrefiningdailyrendersstillmorescanty。Consideredinitself，theclassicstyleisalwaystemptedtoacceptslight，insubstantialcommonplacesforitssubjectmaterials。Itspinsthemout，minglesandweavesthemtogether；onlyafragilefiligree，however，issuesfromitslogicalapparatus；wemayadmiretheelegantworkmanship；butinpractice，theworkisoflittle，none，ornegativeservice。
Fromthesecharacteristicsofstylewedivinethoseofthemindforwhichitservesasatool。—Twoprincipaloperationsconstitutetheactivityofthehumanunderstanding。——Observingthingsandevents，itreceivesamoreorlesscomplete，profoundandexactimpressionofthese；andafterthis，turningawayfromthem，itanalysesitsimpressions，andclassifies，distributes，andmoreorlessskillfullyexpressestheideasderivedfromthem。—Inthesecondoftheseoperationstheclassicistissuperior。Obligedtoadapthimselftohisaudience，thatistosay，topeopleofsocietywhoarenotspecialistsandyetcritical，henecessarilycarriestoperfectiontheartofexcitingattentionandofmakinghimselfheard；thatistosay，theartofcompositionandofwriting。—Withpatientindustry，andmultipliedprecautions，hecarriesthereaderalongwithhimbyaseriesofeasyrectilinearconceptions，stepbystep，omittingnone，beginningwiththelowestandthusascendingtothehighest，alwaysprogressingwithsteadyandmeasuredpeace，securelyandagreeablyasonapromenade。Nointerruptionordiversionispossible:oneitherside，alongtheroad，balustradeskeephimwithinbounds，eachideaextendingintothefollowingonebysuchaninsensibletransition，thatheinvoluntarilyadvances，withoutstoppingorturningaside，untilbroughttothefinaltruthwhereheistobeseated。Classicliteraturethroughoutbearstheimprintofthistalent；thereisnobranchofitintowhichthequalitiesofagooddiscoursedonotenterandformapart。—Theydominatethosesortofworkswhich，inthemselves，areonlyhalf—literary，butwhich，byitshelp，becomefullyso，transformingmanuscriptsintofineworksofartwhichtheirsubject—matterwouldhaveclassifiedasscientificworks，asreportsofaction，ashistoricaldocuments，asphilosophicaltreatises，asdoctrinalexpositions，assermons，polemics，dissertationsanddemonstrations。IttransformsevendictionariesandoperatesfromDescartestoCondillac，fromBossuettoBuffonandVoltaire，fromPascaltoRousseauandBeaumarchais，inshort，becomingprosealmostentirely，eveninofficialdispatches，diplomaticandprivatecorrespondence，fromMadamedeSévignétoMadameduDeffant；includingsomanyperfectlettersflowingfromthepensofwomenwhowereunawareofit。—Suchproseisparamountinthoseworkswhich，inthemselves，areliterary，butwhichderivefromitanoratoricalturn。
Notonlydoesitimposearigidplan，aregulardistributionofparts[26]indramaticworks，accurateproportions，suppressionsandconnections，asequenceandprogress，asinapassageofeloquence，butagainittoleratesonlythemostperfectdiscourse。Thereisnocharacterthatisnotanaccomplishedorator；withCorneilleandRacine，withMolièrehimself，theconfidant，thebarbarianking，theyoungcavalier，thedrawingroomcoquette，thevalet，allshowthemselvesadeptsintheuseoflanguage。Neverhaveweencounteredsuchadroitintroductions，suchwell—arrangedevidence，suchjustreflections，suchdelicatetransitions，suchconclusivesummingups。
Neverhavedialoguesbornesuchastrongresemblancetoverbalsparringmatches。Eachnarration，eachportrait，eachdetailofaction，mightbedetachedandserveasagoodexampleforschoolboys，alongwiththemasterpiecesoftheancienttribune。Sostrongisthistendencythat，ontheapproachofthefinalmoment，intheagonyofdeath，aloneandwithoutwitnesses，thecharacterfindsthemeanstopleadhisownfrenzyanddieeloquently。
II。ITSORIGINALDEFICIENCY。
Itsoriginaldeficiency。—Signsofthisinthe17thcentury。—Itgrowswithtimeandsuccess。—Proofsofthisgrowthinthe18thcentury。—Seriouspoetry，thedrama，historyandromances。—Short—
sightedviewsofmanandofhumanexistence。
Thisexcessindicatesadeficiency。Inthetwooperationswhichthehumanmindperforms，theclassicistismoresuccessfulinthesecondthaninthefirst。Thesecond，indeed，standsinthewayofthefirst，theobligationofalwaysspeakingcorrectlymakeshimrefrainfromsayingallthatoughttobesaid。Withhimtheformismoreimportantthanabundantcontents，thefirsthandobservationswhichserveasalivingsourcelosing，intheregulatedchannelstowhichtheyareconfined，theirforce，depthandimpetuosity。Realpoetry，abletoconveydreamandillusion，cannotbebroughtforth。Lyricpoetryprovesabortive，andlikewisetheepicpoem。[27]Nothingsproutsonthesedistantfields，remoteandsublime，wherespeechuniteswithmusicandpainting。Neverdoweheartheinvoluntaryscreamofintensetorment，thelonelyconfessionofadistraughtsoul，[28]pouringouthishearttorelievehimself。Whenacreationofcharactersisimperative，asindramaticpoetry，theclassicmoldfashionsbutonekind，thatwhichthrougheducation，birth，orimpersonation，alwaysspeakcorrectly，inotherwords，likesomanypeopleofhighsociety。
Noothersareportrayedonthestageorelsewhere，fromCorneilleandRacinetoMarivauxandBeaumarchais。SostrongisthehabitthatitimposesitselfevenonLaFontaine’sanimals，ontheservantsofMolière，onMontesquieu’sPersians，andontheBabylonians，theIndiansandtheMicromégasofVoltaire。—Itmustbestated，furthermore，thatthesecharactersareonlypartlyreal。Inrealpersonstwokindsofcharacteristicsmaybenoted；thefirst，fewinnumber，whichheorsheshareswithothersoftheirkindandwhichanyreaderreadilymayidentify；andtheotherkind，ofwhichthereareagreatmany，describingonlyoneparticularpersonandthesearemuchmoredifficulttodiscover。Classicartconcernsitselfonlywiththeformer；itpurposelyeffaces，neglectsorsubordinatesthelatter。Itdoesnotbuildindividualpersonsbutgeneralizedcharacters，aking，aqueen，ayoungprince，aconfidant，ahigh—priest，acaptainoftheguards，seizedbysomepassion，habitorinclination，suchaslove，ambition，fidelityorperfidy，adespoticorayieldingtemper，somespeciesofwickednessorofnativegoodness。Astothecircumstancesoftimeandplace，which，amongstothers，exerciseamostpowerfulinfluenceinshapinganddiversifyingman，ithardlynotesthem，evensettingthemaside。Inatragedythesceneisseteverywhereandanytime，thecontrary，thattheactiontakesplacenowhereinnospecificepoch，isequallyvalid。Itmaytakeplaceinanypalaceorinanytemple，[29]inwhich，togetridofallhistoricorpersonalimpressions，habitsandcostumesareintroducedconventionally，beingneitherFrenchnorforeign，norancient，normodern。Inthisabstractworldtheaddressisalways\"you\"（asopposedtothefamiliarthou），[30]
\"Seigneur\"and\"Madame，\"thenoblestylealwaysclothingthemostdifferentcharactersinthesamedress。WhenCorneilleandRacine，throughthestatelinessandeleganceoftheirverse，affordusaglimpseofcontemporaryfigurestheydoitunconsciously，imaginingthattheyareportrayingmaninhimself；and，ifweofthepresenttimerecognizeintheirpieceseitherthegentleman，theduelists，thebullies，thepoliticiansortheheroinesoftheFronde，orthecourtiers，princesandbishops，theladiesandgentlemeninwaitingoftheregularmonarchy，itisbecausetheyhaveinadvertentlydippedtheirbrushintheirownexperience，someofitscolorhavingfallenaccidentallyonthebareidealoutlinewhichtheywishedtotrace。Wehavesimplyacontour，ageneralsketch，filledupwiththeharmoniousgraytoneofcorrectdiction。—Evenincomedy，necessarilyemployingcurrenthabits，evenwithMolière，sofrankandsobold，themodelisunfinished，allindividualpeculiaritiesbeingsuppressed，thefacebecomingforamomentatheatricalmask，andthepersonage，especiallywhentalkinginverse，sometimeslosingitsanimationinbecomingthemouth—pieceforamonologueoradissertation。[31]Thestampofrank，conditionorfortune，whethergentlemanorbourgeois，provincialorParisian，isfrequentlyoverlooked。[32]Wearerarelymadetoappreciatephysicalexternals，asinShakespeare，thetemperament，thestateofthenervoussystem，thebluffordrawlingtone，theimpulsiveorrestrainedaction，theemaciationorobesityofacharacter。[33]
Frequentlynotroubleistakentofindasuitablename，thisbeingeitherChrysale，Orgon，Damis，Dorante，orValère。Thenamedesignatesonlyasimplequality，thatofafather，ayouth，avalet，agrumbler，agallant，and，likeanordinarycloak，fittingindifferentlyallformsalike，asitpassesfromthewardrobeofMolièretothatofRegnard，Destouche，LesageorMarivaux。[34]Thecharacterlacksthepersonalbadge，theunique，authenticappellationservingastheprimarystampofanindividual。Allthesedetailsandcircumstances，alltheseaidsandaccompanimentsofaman，remainoutsideoftheclassictheory。TosecuretheadmissionofsomeofthemrequiredthegeniusofMolière，thefullnessofhisconception，thewealthofhisobservation，theextremefreedomofhispen。Itisequallytrueagainthatheoftenomitsthem，andthat，inothercases，heintroducesonlyasmallnumberofthem，becauseheavoidsgivingtothesegeneralcharactersarichnessandcomplexitythatmightinterferewiththestory。Thesimplerthethemethecleareritsdevelopment，thefirstdutyoftheauthorthroughoutthisliteraturebeingtoclearlydeveloptherestrictedthemeofwhichhemakesaselection。
Thereis，accordingly，aradicaldefectintheclassicspirit，thedefectofitsqualities，andwhich，atfirstkeptwithinproperbounds，contributestowardstheproductionofitspurestmaster—
pieces，butwhich，inaccordancewiththeuniversallaw，goesonincreasingandturnsintoavicethroughthenaturaleffectofage，use，andsuccess。Contractedatthestart，itistobecomeyetmoreso。Intheeighteenthcenturythedescriptionofreallife，ofaspecificperson，justasheisinnatureandinhistory，thatistosay，anundefinedunit，arichplexus，acompleteorganismofpeculiaritiesandtraits，superposed，entangledandco—ordinated，isimproper。Thecapacitytoreceiveandcontainalltheseiswanting。
Whatevercanbediscardediscastaside，andtosuchanextentthatnothingisleftatlastbutacondensedextract，anevaporatedresiduum，analmostemptyname，inshort，whatiscalledahollowabstraction。Theonlycharactersintheeighteenthcenturyexhibitinganylifearetheoff—handsketches，madeinpassingandasifcontraband，byVoltaire，BarondeThundertentronkandMilordWatthen，thelesserfiguresinhisstories，andfiveorsixportraitsofsecondaryrank，Turcaret，GilBlas，Marianne，ManonLescaut，Rameau，andFigaro，twoorthreeoftheroughsketchesofCrébillontheyoungerandofCollé，allsomanyworksinwhichsapflowsthroughafamiliarknowledgeofthings，comparablewiththoseoftheminormastersinpainting，Watteau，Fragonard，Saint—Aubin，Moreau，Lancret，Pater，andBeaudouin，andwhich，acceptedwithdifficulty，orasasurprise，bytheofficialdrawingroomarestilltosubsistafterthegranderandsoberercanvasesshallhavebecomemoldythroughtheirwearisomeexhalations。Everywhereelsethesapdriesup，and，insteadofbloomingplants，weencounteronlyflowersofpaintedpaper。Whatarealltheseriouspoems，fromthe\"laHenriade\"ofVoltairetothe\"Mois\"byRoucherorthe\"l’Imagination\"byDelille，butsomanypiecesofrhetoricgarnishedwithrhymes？ExaminetheinnumerabletragediesandcomediesofwhichGrimmandCollégivesusmortuaryextracts，eventhemeritoriousworksofVoltaireandCrébillon，andlater，thoseofauthorsofrepute，DuBelloy，Laharpe，Ducis，andMarieChénier？Eloquence，art，situations，correctverse，allexistintheseexcepthumannature；thepersonagesaresimplywell—taughtpuppets，andgenerallymeremouthpiecesbywhichtheauthormakeshisdeclamationpublic；Greeks，Romans，Medievalknights，Turks，Arabs，Peruvians，Giaours，orByzantines，theyhaveallthesamedeclamatorymechanisms。Thepublic，meanwhile，betraysnosurprise。Itisnotawareofhistory。Itassumesthathumanityiseverywherethesame。Itestablishesthesuccessalikeofthe\"Incas\"byMarmontel，andof\"Gonsalve\"andthe\"Nouvelles\"byFlorian；alsoofthepeasants，mechanics，Negroes，Brazilians，Parsees，andMalabaritesthatappearbeforeitchurningouttheirexaggerations。Manissimplyregardedasareasoningbeing，alikeinallagesandalikeinallplaces；
BernardindeSaint—Pierreendowshispariahwiththishabit，likeDiderot，inhisTahitians。Theonerecognizedprincipleisthateveryhumanbeingmustthinkandtalklikeabook。—Andhowinadequatetheirhistoricalbackground！Withtheexceptionof\"CharlesXII。，\"acontemporaryonwhomVoltaire，thankstoeyeeye—witnesses，bestowsfreshlife，alsohisspiritedsketchesofEnglishmen，Frenchmen，Spaniards，ItaliansandGermans，scatteredthroughhisstories，wherearerealpersonstobefound？WithHume，GibbonandRobertson，belongingtotheFrenchschool，andwhoareatonceadoptedinFrance，intheresearchesintoourmiddleagesofDubosandofMably，inthe\"LouisXI\"ofDuclos，inthe\"Anarcharsis\"ofBarthélemy，eveninthe\"EssaisurlesMoeurs，\"andinthe\"SiecledeLouisXIV\"ofVoltaire，eveninthe\"GrandeurdesRomains，\"andthe\"EspritdesLois\"ofMontesquieu，whatpeculiardeficiency！Erudition，criticism，commonsense，analmostexactexpositionofdogmasandofinstitutions，philosophicviewsoftherelationshipsbetweeneventsandonthegeneralrunofthese，nothingislackingbutthepeople！Onreadingtheseitseemsasiftheclimates，institutionsandcivilizationswhichsocompletelymodifiesthehumanintellect，aresimplysomanyoutworks，somanyfortuitousexteriors，which，farfromreflectingitsdepthsscarcelypenetratebeneathitssurface。Thevastdifferencesseparatingthemenoftwocenturies，oroftwopeoples，escapethementirely。[35]TheancientGreek，theearlyChristian，theconqueringTeuton，thefeudalman，theArabofMahomet，theGerman，theRenaissanceEnglishman，thepuritan，appearintheirbooksasinengravingsandfrontispieces，withsomedifferenceincostume，butthesamebodies，thesamefaces，thesamecountenances，toneddown，obliterated，proper，adaptedtotheconventionalitiesofgoodmanners。
Thatsympatheticimaginationbywhichthewriterentersintothemindofanother，andreproducesinhimselfasystemofhabitsandfeelingssodifferentfromhisown，isthetalentthemostabsentintheeighteenthcentury。WiththeexceptionofDiderot，whousesitbadlyandcapriciously，italmostentirelydisappearsinthelasthalfofthecentury。Considerinturn，duringthesameperiod，inFranceandinEngland，whereitismostextensivelyused，theromance，asortofmirroreverywheretransportable，thebestadaptedtoreflectallphrasesofnatureandoflife。AfterreadingtheseriesofEnglishnovelists，Defoe，Richardson，Fielding，Smollett，Sterne，andGoldsmithdowntoMissBurneyandMissAusten，IhavebecomefamiliarwithEnglandintheeighteenthcentury；Ihaveencounteredclergymen，countrygentlemen，farmers，innkeepers，sailors，peopleofeveryconditioninlife，highandlow；Iknowthedetailsoffortunesandofcareers，howmuchisearned，howmuchisexpended，howjourneysaremadeandhowpeopleeatanddrink:Ihaveaccumulatedformyselfafileofprecisebiographicalevents，acompletepictureinathousandscenesofanentirecommunity，theampleststockofinformationtoguidemeshouldIwishtoframeahistoryofthisvanishedworld。OnreadingacorrespondinglistofFrenchnovelists，theyoungerCrébillon，Rousseau，Marmontel，Laclos，RestifdelaBreton，Louvet，MadamedeSta？l，MadamedeGenlisandtherest，includingMercierandevenMme。Cottin，Iscarcelytakeanynotes；allpreciseandinstructivelittlefactsareleftout；Ifindcivilities，politeacts，gallantries，mischief—making，socialdissertationsandnothingelse。
Theycarefullyabstainfrommentioningmoney，fromgivingmefigures，fromdescribingawedding，atrial，theadministrationofapieceofproperty；Iamignorantofthesituationofacurate，ofarusticnoble，ofaresidentprior，ofasteward，ofanintendant。Whateverrelatestoaprovinceortotheruraldistricts，tothebourgeoisieortotheshop，[36]tothearmyortoasoldier，totheclergyortoconvents，tojusticeortothepolice，tobusinessortohousekeepingremainsvaguelyinmymindorisfalsified；toclearupanypointIamobligedtorecurtothatmarvelousVoltairewho，onlayingasidethegreatclassiccoat，findsplentyofelbowroomandtellsall。Ontheorgansofsocietyofvitalimportance，onthepracticesandregulationsthatprovokerevolutions，onfeudalrightsandseigniorialjustice，onthemodeofrecruitingandgoverningmonasticbodies，ontherevenuemeasuresoftheprovinces，ofcorporationsandoftrade—
unions，onthetithesandthecorvées，[37]literatureprovidesmewithscarcelyanyinformation。Drawing—roomsandmenoflettersareapparentlyitssolematerial。Therestisnullandvoid。OutsidethegoodsocietythatisabletoconverseFranceappearsperfectlyempty。
—OntheapproachoftheRevolutiontheeliminationincreases。Lookthroughtheharanguesoftheclubsandofthetribune，throughreports，legislativebillsandpamphlets，andthroughthemassofwritingspromptedbypassingandexcitingevents；innoneofthemdoweseeanysignofthehumancreatureasweseehiminthefieldsandinthestreet；heisalwaysregardedasasimplerobot，awellknownmechanism。Amongwritershewasamomentagoadispenserofcommonplaces，amongpoliticiansheisnowapliablevoter；touchhimintheproperplaceandherespondsinthedesiredmanner。Factsareneverapparent；onlyabstractions，longarraysofsentencesonnature，Reason，andthepeople，ontyrantsandliberty，likeinflatedballoons，uselesslyconflictingwitheachotherinspace。Werewenotawarethatallthiswouldterminateinterriblepracticaleffectsthenwecouldregarditascompetitioninlogic，asschoolexercises，academicparades，orideologicalcompositions。Itis，infact，Ideology，thelastproductofthecentury，whichwillstamptheclassicspiritwithitsfinalformulaandlastword。
III。THEMATHEMATICALMETHOD。
ThephilosophicmethodinconformitywiththeClassicSprit。—
Ideology。—Abuseofthemathematicalprocess。—Condillac，Rousseau，Mably，Condorcet，Volney，Sieyès，Cabanis，anddeTracy。—Excessesofsimplificationandboldnessoforganization。
Thenaturalprocessoftheclassicspiritistopursueineveryresearch，withtheutmostconfidence，withouteitherreserveorprecaution，themathematicalmethod:toderive，limitandisolateafewofthesimplestgeneralizednotionsandthen，settingexperienceaside，comparingthem，combiningthem，and，fromtheartificialcompoundthusobtained，bypurereasoning，deducealltheconsequencestheyinvolve。Itissodeeplyimplantedastobeequallyencounteredinbothcenturies，aswellwithDescartes，Malebranche[38]andthepartisansofinnateideasaswiththepartisansofsensation，ofphysicalneedsandofprimaryinstinct，Condillac，Rousseau，Helvétius，andlater，Condorcet，Volney，Sieyès，CabanisandDestuttdeTracy。InvaindothelatterassertthattheyarethefollowersofBaconandreject（thetheoryof）innateideas；withanotherstartingpointthantheCartesianstheypursuethesamepath，and，aswiththeCartesians，afterborrowingalittle，theyleaveexperiencebehindthem。Inthisvastmoralandsocialworld，theyonlyremovethesuperficialbarkfromthehumantreewithitsinnumerablerootsandbranches；theyareunabletopenetratetoorgraspatanythingbeyondit；theirhandscannotcontainmore。Theyhavenosuspicionofanythingoutsideofit；theclassicspirit，withlimitedcomprehension，isnotfar—reaching。Tothemthebarkistheentiretree，and，theoperationoncecompleted，theyretire，bearingalongwiththemthedry，deadepidermis，neverreturningtothetrunkitself。Throughintellectualincapacityandliterarypridetheyomitthecharacteristicdetail，theanimatingfact，thespecificcircumstance，thesignificant，convincingandcompleteexample。
Scarcelyoneoftheseisfoundinthe\"Logique\"andinthe\"TraitédesSensations\"byCondillac，inthe\"Idéologie\"byDestuttdeTracy，orinthe\"RapportsduPhysiqueetduMorale\"byCabanis。[39]Never，withthem，areweonthesolidandvisiblegroundofpersonalobservationandnarration，butalwaysintheair，intheemptyspaceofpuregeneralities。Condillacdeclaresthatthearithmeticalmethodisadaptedtopsychologyandthattheelementsofourideascanbedefinedbyaprocessanalogous\"totheruleofthree。\"Sieyèsholdshistoryinprofoundcontempt，andbelievesthathehad\"perfectedthescienceofpolitics\"[40]atonestroke，throughaneffortofthebrain，inthestyleofDescartes，whothusdiscoversanalyticgeometry。DestuttdeTracy，inundertakingtocommentonMontesquieu，findsthatthegreathistorianhastooservilelyconfinedhimselftohistory，andattemptstodotheworkoveragainbyorganizingsocietyasitshouldbe，insteadofstudyingsocietyasitis。—Neverweresuchsystematicandsuperficialinstitutionsbuiltupwithsuchamoderateextractofhumannature。[41]Condillac，employingsensation，animatesastatue，andthen，byaprocessofpurereasoning，followingupitseffects，ashesupposes，onsmell，taste，hearing，sightandtouch，fashionsacompletehumansoul。Rousseau，bymeansofacontract，foundspoliticalassociation，and，withthisgivenidea，pullsdowntheconstitution，governmentandlawsofeverybalancedsocialsystem。Inabookwhichservesasthephilosophicaltestamentofthecentury，[42]Condorcetdeclaresthatthismethodisthe\"finalstepofphilosophy，thatwhichplacesasortofeternalbarrierbetweenhumanityanditsancientinfantileerrors。\"\"Byapplyingittomorals，politicsandpoliticaleconomythemoralscienceshaveprogressednearlyasmuchasthenaturalsciences。Withitshelpwehavebeenabletodiscovertherightsofman。\"Asinmathematics，theyhavebeendeducedfromoneprimordialstatementonly，whichstatement，similartoafirstprincipleinmathematics，becomesafactofdailyexperience，seenbyallandthereforeself—evident。—ThisschoolofthoughtistoendurethroughouttheRevolution，theEmpireandevenintotheRestoration，[43]togetherwiththetragedyofwhichitisthesister，withtheclassicspirittheircommonparent，aprimordial，sovereignpower，asdangerousasitisuseful，asdestructiveasitiscreative，ascapableofpropagatingerrorastruth，asastonishingintherigidityofitscode，thenarrow—mindednessofitsyokeandintheuniformityofitsworksasinthedurationofitsreignandtheuniversalityofitsascendancy。[44]
Notes:
[1]Voltaire，\"Dict。Phil。，\"seethearticlesonLanguage。\"OfallthelanguagesinEuropetheFrenchismostgenerallyusedbecauseitisthebestadaptedtoconversation。Itscharacterisderivedfromthatofthepeoplewhospeakit。Formorethanahundredandfiftyyearspast，theFrenchhavebeenthemostfamiliarwith（good）societyandthefirsttoavoidallembarrassment……Itisabettercurrencythananyother，evenifitshouldlackweight。\"
[2]HIST:honnêtehommemeansgentleman。（SR。）
[3]Descartes，ed。Cousin，XI。333，I。121，……Descartesdepreciates\"simpleknowledgeacquiredwithouttheaidofreflection，suchaslanguages，history，geography，and，generally，whateverisnotbasedonexperience……ItisnomorethedutyofanhonestmantoknowGreekorLatinthantoknowtheSwissorBretonlanguages，northehistoryoftheRomano—GermanicempireanymorethanofthesmallestcountryinEurope。\"
[4]Molière，\"LesFemmesSavantes，\"and\"LaCritiquedel’écoledesfemmes。\"ThepartsofDorantewithLycidasandofClitandrewithTrissotin。
[5]ThelearnedHuet，（1630—1721），truetothetasteofthesixteenthcentury，describesthischangeverywellfromhispointofview。\"WhenIenteredtheworldoflettersthesewerestillflourishing；greatreputationsmaintainedtheirsupremacy。Ihaveseenlettersdeclineandfinallyreachanalmostentiredecay。ForIscarcelyknowapersonofthepresenttimethatonecantrulycallasavant。\"ThefewBenedictineslikeDucangeandMabillon，andlater，theacademicianFréret，thepresidentBouhierofDijon，inshort，theveritableeruditesexercisenoinfluence。
[6]Nicole，\"Oeuvresmorales，\"inthesecondessayonCharityandSelf—love，142。
[7]Voltaire，\"Dialogues，\"\"L’intendantdesmenusetl’abbéGrizel，\"
129。
[8]Mauryaddswithhisaccustomedcoarseness，\"We，intheFrenchAcademy，lookeduponthemembersoftheAcademyofSciencesasourvalets。\"—ThesevaletsatthattimeconsistedofLavoisier，Fourcroy，Lagrange，Laplace，etc。（AnarrativebyJosephdeMaistre，quotebySainte—Beuve，\"Causeriesdulundi，\"IV。283。）
[9]Thisdescriptionmakesmethinkofthecontemporaryattitudespejorativelycalled\"politicallycorrectness。\"Thusthedrawings—roomaudienceofthe18thcenturyhavetodaybeenreplacedbythe\"politicalcorrect\"eliteholdingswayinteachertrainingschools，schoolsofjournalism，themediaandhenceamongthetelevisionpublic。Thesamemechanismwhichmovedtheupperclassinthe18thcenturymovesitinthe20thcentury……（S。R。）
[10]Todayin1999wemayspeakoftheTVmoldforcedbythemeasuredpopularityor\"ratings\"oftheprograms。（SR。
[11]Vaugelas，\"Remarquessurlalanguefran？aise:\"\"Itisthemodeofspeechofthemostsensibleportionofthecourt，aswellasthemodeofwritingofthemostsensibleauthorsoftheday。ItisbettertoconsultwomenandthosewhohavenotstudiedthanthosewhoareverylearnedinGreekandinLatin。\"
[12]OneofthecausesofthefallanddiscreditoftheMarquisd’Argensonintheeighteenthcentury，washishabitofusingthese。
[13]Vaugelas，ibid……\"Althoughwemayhaveeliminatedone—halfofhisphrasesandtermsweneverthelessobtainintheotherhalfalltherichesofwhichweboastandofwhichwemakeadisplay。\"—Comparetogetheralexiconoftwoorthreewritersofthesixteenthcenturyandoneoftwoorthreewritersoftheseventeenth。Abriefstatementoftheresultsofthecomparisonisheregiven。Letanyone，withpeninhand，notethedifferencesonahundredpagesofanyofthesetexts，andhewillbesurprisedatit。Take，forexamples，twowritersofthesamecategory，andofsecondarygrade，CharronandNicole。
[14]Forinstance，inthearticle\"Ignorance，\"inthe\"Dict。
Philosophique。\"
[15]LaHarpe，\"CoursdeLittérature，\"ed。Didot。II。142。
[16]Abattle—axeusedbytheFranks。—TR。
[17]Iciteanexamplehaphazardfromthe\"Optimiste\"（1788），byColind’Harleville。Inacertaindescription，\"Thescenerepresentsabosquetfilledwithodoriferoustrees。\"—Theclassicspiritrebelsagainststatingthespeciesoftree，whetherlilacs，lindensorhawthorns。—Inpaintingsoflandscapesofthiserawehavethesamething，thetreesbeinggeneralized，—ofnoknownspecies。
[18]Thisevolutionisseentodayaswell，televisionhavingthesameeffectuponitsactorsasthe18thcenturydrawing—room。（SR。）
[19]Seeinthe\"Lycée，\"bylaHarpe，aftertheanalysisofeachpiece，hisremarksondetailinstyle。
[20]Theomissionofthepronouns，I，he，we，you，they，thearticlethe，andoftheverb，especiallytheverbtobe。——AnypageofRabelais，AmyotorMontaigne，sufficestoshowhownumerousandvariouswerethetranspositions。
[21]Vaugelas，ibid。\"Nolanguageismoreinimicaltoambiguitiesandeveryspeciesofobscurity。\"
[22]Seetheprincipalromancesoftheseventeenthcentury，the\"RomanBourgeois，\"byFuretière，the\"PrincessdeClèves，\"byMadamedeLafayette，the\"Clélie，\"byMme。deScudéry，andevenScarron’s\"RomanComique。\"—SeeBalzac’sletters，andthoseofVoitureandtheircorrespondents，the\"Récitdesgrandsjoursd’Auvergne，\"byFléchier，etc。Ontheoratoricalpeculiaritiesofthisstylecf。
Sainte—Beuve，\"Port—Royal，\"2nded。I。515。
[23]Voltaire，’Esaysurlepoèmeépique’，\"Ournation，regardedbystrangersassuperficialis，withthepeninitshand，thewisestofall。Methodisthedominantqualityofallourwriters。\"
[24]Milton’sworksarebuiltupwith8，000。\"Shakespeare，whodisplayedagreatervarietyofexpressionthanprobablyanywriterinanylanguage，producedallhisplayswithabout15，000wordsandtheOldTestamentsaysallithastosaywith5，642words。\"（MaxMüller，\"LecturesontheScienceoflanguage，\"I。309。）—ItwouldbeinterestingtoplacealongsideofthisRacine’srestrictedvocabulary。
ThatofMme。deScuderyisextremelylimited。InthebestromanceoftheXVIIthcentury，the\"PrincessedeClèves，\"thenumberofwordsisreducedtotheminimum。TheDictionaryoftheoldFrenchAcademycontains29，712words；theGreekThesaurus，byH。Estienne，containsabout150，000。
[25]ComparetogetherthetranslationsoftheBiblemadebydeSacyandLuther；thoseofHomerbyDacier，BitaubéandLecomtedeLisle；
thoseofHerodotus，byLarcherandCourrier，thepopulartalesofPerraultandthosebyGrimm，etc。
[26]Seethe\"Discoursacadémique，\"byRacine，onthereceptionofThomasCorneille:\"InthischaosofdramaticpoetryyourillustriousbrotherbroughtReasononthestage，butReasonassociatedwithallthepompandtheornamentationourlanguageiscapableof。\"
[27]Voltaire，\"Essaysurlepoèmeépique，\"290。\"ItmustbeadmittedthataFrenchmanhasmoredifficultyinwritinganepicpoemthananybodyelse……DareIconfessit？Ourownistheleastpoeticofallpolishednations。TheworksinversethemosthighlyesteemedinFrancearethoseofthedrama，whichmustbewritteninafamiliarstyleapproachingconversation。\"
[28]Exceptin\"Pensées，\"byPascal，afewnotesdotteddownbyamorbidlyexaltedChristian，andwhichcertainly，intheperfectwork，wouldnothavebeenallowedtoremainastheyare。
[29]SeeintheCabinetofEngravingsthetheatricalcostumesofthemiddleoftheXVIIIthcentury。—NothingcouldbemoreopposedtothespiritoftheclassicdramathanthepartsofEstherandBrittannicus，astheyareplayednowadays，intheaccuratecostumesandwithsceneryderivedfromlatediscoveriesatPompeiiorNineveh。
[30]TheformalitywhichthisindicateswillbeunderstoodbythosefamiliarwiththeuseofthepronounthouinFrance，denotingintimacyandfreedomfromrestraintincontrastwithceremoniousandformalintercourse。—Tr。
[31]SeethepartsofthemoralizersandreasonerslikeCléantein\"Tartuffe，\"Aristein\"LesFemmesSavantes，\"Chrysalein\"L’EcoledesFemmes，\"etc。Seethediscussionbetweenthetwobrothersin\"LeFestindePierre，\"III。5；thediscourseofErgastein\"L’EcoledesMaris\"；thatofEliante，imitatedfromLucretiusinthe\"Misanthrope，\"
II。5；theportraiture，byDorinein\"Tartuffe，\"I。1。—Theportraitofthehypocrite，byDonJuanin\"LeFestindePierre，\"V。2。
[32]ForinstancethepartsofHarpagonandArnolphe。
[33]WeseethisinTartuffe，butonlythroughanexpressionofDorine，andnotdirectly。Cf。inShakespeare，thepartsofCoriolanus，Hotspur，Falstaff，Othello，Cleopatra，etc。
[34]Balzacpassedentiredaysinreadingthe\"Almanachdescentmilleadresses，\"alsoinacabinthestreetsduringtheafternoons，examiningsignsforthepurposeoffindingsuitablenamesforhischaracters。Thislittlecircumstanceshowsthedifferencebetweentwodiverseconceptionsofmankind。
[35]\"Atthepresentday，whatevermaybesaid，thereisnosuchthingasFrenchmen，Germans，Spaniards，andEnglishmen，forallareEuropeans。Allhavethesametastes，thesamepassions，thesamehabits，nonehavingobtainedanationalformthroughanyspecificinstitution。\"Rousseau，\"SurlegouvernementdePologne，\"170。
[36]Previousto1750wefindsomethingaboutthesein\"Gil—Blas，\"
andin\"Marianne，\"（Mme。Dufourthesempstressandhershop）。—
UnfortunatelytheSpanishtravestypreventsthenovelsofLesagefrombeingasinstructiveastheymightbe。
[37]InterestingdetailsarefoundinthelittlestoriesbyDiderotas，forinstance，\"LesdeuxamisdeBourbonne。\"Butelsewhereheisapartisan，especiallyinthe\"Religieuse，\"andconveysafalseimpressionofthings。
[38]\"Toattaintothetruthwehaveonlytofixourattentionontheideaswhicheachonefindswithinhisownmind。\"（Malebranche，\"RecherchedelaVérité，\"bookI。ch。1。）—\"Thoselongchainsofreasoning，allsimpleandeasy，whichgeometersusetoarriveattheirmostdifficultdemonstrations，suggestedtomethatallthingswhichcomewithinhumanknowledgemustfolloweachotherinasimilarchain。\"（Descartes，\"DiscoursdelaMethode，\"I。142）。—IntheseventeenthcenturyInthe17thcenturyconstructionsaprioriwerebasedonideas，inthe18thcenturyonsensations，butalwaysfollowingthesamemathematicalmethodfullydisplayedinthe\"Ethics\"
ofSpinoza。
[39]Seeespeciallyhismemoir:\"Del’influenceduclimatsurleshabitudesmorales，\"vague，andwhollybarrenofillustrationsexceptingonecitationfromHippocrates。
[40]TheseareSieyèsownwords。—Headdselsewhere，\"Thereisnomorerealityinassumedhistoricaltruthsthaninassumedreligioustruths。\"（\"PapiersdeSieyès，\"theyear1772，accordingtoSainte—
Beuve，\"Causeriesdulundi，\"V。194）。—DescartesandMalebranchealreadyexpressedthiscontemptforhistory。
[41]Today，in1998，weknowthatTainewasright。Theresearchonanimalandhumanbehavior，onanimalandhumanbraincircuitry，andthebehaviorofthecruelhumananimalduringthe20thcentury，confirmedhisviews。Stillmankindpersistsinpreferringsimplesolutionsandideastocomplexones。Thisisthewayourbrainsandournatureasgregariousanimalsmakeusthinkandfeel。Thisourbasichumannaturemakeambitiousmenabletoappealtoanddominatethecrowd。（SR。）
[42]Condorcet，\"Esquissed’untableauhistoriquedel’esprithumain，\"ninthepoch。
[43]Seethe\"Tableauhistorique，\"presentedtotheInstitutebyChénierin1808，showingbyitsstatementsthattheclassicspiritstillprevailsinallbranchesofliterature。—Cabanisdiedin1818，Volneyin1820，deTracyandSieyèsin1836，Daunouin1840。InMay，1845，SapharyandValettearestillprofessorsofCondillac’sphilosophyinthetwolycéesinParis。
[44]TheworlddidnotheedTaine’swarnings。TheleadersandthemassesoftheWesternworldweretobeseducedbytheterriblenewideologiesofthe20thcentury。Theideologyofsocialismpersistsmakinggooduseoftherevised20thcenturyeditionsoftheRightsofMan，enlargedtocoverthephysicalwell—beingandstandardoflivingofman，woman，childandanimalandinthismannerallowingthestatetoreplaceallindividualresponsibilityandauthority，thus，asTainesaw，dealingadeathblowtothefamily，toindividualresponsibilityandenterpriseandtoeffectivelocalgovernment。（SR。）。
CHAPTERIII。COMBINATIONOFTHETWOELEMENTS。
I。BIRTHOFADOCTRINE，AREVELATION。
Thedoctrine，itspretensions，anditscharacter。—AnewauthorityforReasonintheregulationofhumanaffairs。—Governmentthusfartraditional。
OUTofthescientificacquisitionsthussetforth，elaboratedbythespiritwehavejustdescribed，isbornadoctrine，seeminglyarevelation，andwhich，underthistitle，wastoclaimthegovernmentofhumanaffairs。Ontheapproachof1789itisgenerallyadmittedthatmanislivingin\"acenturyoflight，\"in\"theageofReason；\"
that，previously，thehumanspecieswasinitsinfancyandthatnowithasattainedtoits\"majority。\"Truth，finally，ismademanifestand，forthefirsttime，itsreignonearthisapparent。Therightissupremebecauseitistruthitself。Itmustdirectallthingsbecausethroughitsnatureitisuniversal。Thephilosophyoftheeighteenthcentury，inthesetwoarticlesoffaith，resemblesareligion，thePuritanismoftheseventeenthcentury，andIslamintheseventhcentury。Weseethesameoutburstoffaith，hopeandenthusiasm，thesamespiritofpropagandaandofdominion，thesamerigidityandintolerance，thesameambitiontorecastmanandtoremodelhumanlifeaccordingtoapreconceivedtype。Thenewdoctrineisalsotohaveitsscholars，itsdogmas，itspopularcatechism，itsfanatics，itsinquisitorsanditsmartyrs。Itistospeakasloudlyasthoseprecedingit，asalegitimateauthoritytowhichdictatorshipbelongsbyrightofbirth，andagainstwhichrebellioniscriminalorinsane。
Itdiffers，however，fromtheprecedingreligionsinthisrespect，thatinsteadofimposingitselfinthenameofGod，itimposesitselfinthenameofReason。
Theauthority，indeed，wasanewone。Uptothistime，inthecontrolofhumanactionsandopinions，Reasonhadplayedbutasmallandsubordinatepart。Boththemotiveanditsdirectionwereobtainedelsewhere；faithandobediencewereaninheritance；amanwasaChristianandasubjectbecausehewasbornChristianandsubject。——
SurroundingthenascentphilosophyandtheReasonwhichentersuponitsgreatinvestigation，isasystemofrecognizedlaws，anestablishedpower，areigningreligion；allthestonesofthisstructureholdtogetherandeachstoryissupportedbyaprecedingstory。Butwhatdoesthecommoncementconsistof，andwhereisthebasicfoundation？——Whosanctionsallthesecivilregulationswhichcontrolmarriages，testaments，inheritances，contracts，propertyandpersons，thesefancifulandoftencontradictoryregulations？Inthefirstplaceimmemorialcustom，varyingaccordingtotheprovince，accordingtothetitletothesoil，accordingtothequalityandconditionoftheperson；andnext，thewillofthekingwhocausedthecustomtobeinscribedandwhosanctionedit。——Whoauthorizesthiswill，thissovereigntyoftheprince，thisfirstofpublicobligations？Inthefirstplace，eightcenturiesofpossession，ahereditaryrightsimilartothatbywhicheachoneenjoyshisownfieldanddomain，apropertyestablishedinafamilyandtransmittedfromoneeldestsontoanother，fromthefirstfounderoftheStatetohislastlivingsuccessor；and，inadditiontothis，areligiondirectingmentosubmittotheconstitutedpowers。——Andwho，finally，authorizesthisreligion？Atfirst，eighteencenturiesoftradition，theimmenseseriesofanteriorandconcordantproofs，thesteadybeliefofsixtyprecedinggenerations；andafterthis，atthebeginningofit，thepresenceandteachingsofChrist，then，fartherback，thecreationoftheworld，thecommandandthevoiceofGod。——
Thus，throughoutthemoralandsocialorderofthingsthepastjustifiesthepresent；antiquityprovidesitstitle，andifbeneathallthesesupportswhichagehasconsolidated，thedeepprimitiverockissoughtforinsubterraneandepths，wefinditinthedivinewill。
——Duringthewholeoftheseventeenthcenturythistheorystillabsorbsallsoulsintheshapeofafixedhabitandofinwardrespect；
itisnotopentoquestion。Itisregardedinthesamelightastheheartofthelivingbody；whoeverwouldlayhishanduponitwouldinstantlydrawback，movedbyavaguesentimentofitsceasingtobeatincaseitweretouched。Themostindependent，withDescartesatthehead，\"wouldbegrieved\"atbeingconfoundedwiththosechimericalspeculatorswho，insteadofpursuingthebeatentrackofcustom，dartblindlyforward\"inadirectlineacrossmountainsandoverprecipices。\"Insubjectingtheirbelieftosystematicinvestigationnotonlydotheyleaveoutandsetapart\"thetruthsoffaith，\"[1]butagainthedogmatheythinktheyhavethrownoutremainsintheirmindlatentandactive，toguidethemonunconsciouslyandtoconverttheirphilosophyintoapreparationfor，oraconfirmationof，Christianity。[2]——Summingitallup，faith，theperformanceofreligiousduties，withreligiousandpoliticalinstitutions，areatbaseofallthoughtoftheseventeenthcentury。Reason，whethersheadmitsitorisignorantofit，isonlyasubaltern，anoratoricalagency，asetter—in—motion，forcedbyreligionandthemonarchytolaborintheirbehalf。WiththeexceptionofLaFontaine，whomI
regardasuniqueinthisasinothermatters，thegreatestandmostindependent，Pascal，Descartes，Bossuet，LaBruyère，borrowsfromtheestablishedsocietytheirbasicconceptsofnature，man，society，lawandgovernment。[3]SolongasReasonislimitedtothisfunctionitsworkisthatofacouncilorofState，anextrapreacherdispatchedbyitssuperiorsonamissionarytourinthedepartmentsofphilosophyandofliterature。Farfromprovingdestructiveitconsolidates；infact，evendowntotheRegency，itschiefemploymentistoproducegoodChristiansandloyalsubjects。
Butnowtherolesarereversed；traditiondescendsfromtheuppertothelowerranks，whileReasonascendsfromthelattertotheformer。——Ontheonehandreligionandmonarchy，throughtheirexcessesandmisdeedsunderLouisXIV，andtheirlaxityandincompetenceunderLouisXV，demolishpiecebypiecethebasisofhereditaryreverenceandfilialobediencesolongservingthemasafoundation，andwhichmaintainedthemaloftabovealldisputeandfreeofinvestigation；hencetheauthorityoftraditioninsensiblydeclinesanddisappears。Ontheotherhandscience，throughitsimposingandmultiplieddiscoveries，erectspiecebypieceabasisofuniversaltrustanddeference，raisingitselfupfromaninterestingsubjectofcuriositytotherankofapublicpower；hencetheauthorityofReasonaugmentsandoccupiesitsplace。——Atimecomeswhen，thelatterauthorityhavingdispossessedtheformer，thefundamentalideastraditionhadreservedtoitselffallintothegraspofReason。
Investigationpenetratesintotheforbiddensanctuary。Insteadofdeferencethereisverification，andreligion，thestate，thelaw，custom，alltheorgans，inshort，ofmoralandpracticallife，becomesubjecttoanalysis，tobepreserved，restoredorreplaced，accordingtotheprescriptionsofthenewdoctrine。