TheimmediatesourceofthesemanifestationsseemstohavebeenthewildrevelsofSt。John’sDay。Inthoserevelssundryoldheathenceremonieshadbeenperpetuated，butunderanominallyChristianform：wildBacchanaliandanceshadthusbecomeasemi-religiousceremonial。Thereligiousandsocialatmospherewaspropitioustothedevelopmentofthegermsofdiabolicinfluencevitalizedintheseorgies，andtheywerescatteredfarandwidethroughlargetractsoftheNetherlandsandGermany，andespeciallythroughthewholeregionoftheRhine。AtColognewehearoffivehundredafflictedatonce；atMetzofelevenhundreddancersinthestreets；atStrasburgofyetmorepainfulmanifestations；andfromtheseandothercitiestheyspreadthroughthevillagesandruraldistricts。
Thegreatmajorityofthesuffererswerewomen，butthereweremanymen，andespeciallymenwhoseoccupationsweresedentary。
Remediesweretrieduponalargescale-exorcismsfirst，butespeciallypilgrimagestotheshrineofSt。Vitus。Theexorcismsaccomplishedsolittlethatpopularfaithinthemgrewsmall，andthemaineffectofthepilgrimagesseemedtobetoincreasethedisorderbysubjectinggreatcrowdstothediaboliccontagion。Yetanothercurativemeanswasseenintheflagellantprocessions——vastcrowdsofmen，women，andchildrenwhowanderedthroughthecountry，screaming，praying，beatingthemselveswithwhips，imploringtheDivinemercyandtheinterventionofSt。
Vitus。MostfearfulofallthemainattemptsatcurewerethepersecutionsoftheJews。AfeelinghadevidentlyspreadamongthepeopleatlargethattheAlmightywasfilledwithwrathatthetolerationofhisenemies，andmightbepropitiatedbytheirdestruction：intheprincipalcitiesandvillagesofGermany，then，theJewswereplundered，tortured，andmurderedbytensofthousands。Nodoubtthat，inallthis，greedwasunitedwithfanaticism；buttheargumentoffanaticismwassimpleandcogent；thedartwhichpiercedthebreastofIsraelatthattimewaswingedandpointedfromitsownsacredbooks：thebiblicalargumentwasthesameusedinvariousagestopromotepersecution；andthiswas，thatthewrathoftheAlmightywasstirredagainstthosewhotoleratedhisenemies，andthatbecauseofthistolerationthesamecursehadnowcomeuponEuropewhichtheprophetSamuelhaddenouncedagainstSaulforshowingmercytotheenemiesofJehovah。
Itisbutjusttosaythatvariouspopesandkingsexertedthemselvestocheckthesecruelties。AlthoughtheargumentofSamueltoSaulwasusedwithfrightfuleffecttwohundredyearslaterbyamostconscientiouspopeinspurringontherulersofFrancetoextirpatetheHuguenots，thepapacyinthefourteenthcenturystoodformercytotheJews。Buteventhisinterventionwaslongwithouteffect；thetideofpopularsuperstitionhadbecometoostrongtobecurbedevenbythespiritualandtemporalpowers。[386]
[386]SeeWellhausen，articleIsrael，intheEncyclopaediaBritannica，ninthedition；alsothereprintofitinhisHistoryofIsrael，London，1885，p。546。Onthegeneralsubjectofthedemoniacalepidemics，seeIsensee，GeschichtederMedicin，vol。
i，pp。260etseq。；alsoHecker’sessay。AstothehistoryofSaul，asacuriouslandmarkinthegeneraldevelopmentofthesubject，seeTheCaseofSaul，showingthathisDisorderwasaRealSpiritualPossession，byGranvilleSharp，London，1807，passim。AstothecitationofSaul’scasebythereigningPopetospurontheFrenchkingsagainsttheHuguenots，IhopetogivealistofauthoritiesinafuturechapteronTheChurchandInternationalLaw。Forthegeneralsubject，withinterestingdetails，seeLaurent，Etudessurl’Histoiredel’Humanities。SeealsoMaury，LaMagieetl’Astrologiedansl’AntiquiteetauMoyenAge。
Againstthisoverwhelmingcurrentscienceformanygenerationscoulddonothing。Throughoutthewholeofthefifteenthcenturyphysiciansappearedtoshunthewholematter。Occasionallysomemorethoughtfulmanventuredtoascribesomephaseofthediseasetonaturalcauses；butthiswasanunpopulardoctrine，andevidentlydangeroustothosewhodevelopedit。
Yet，inthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury，casesof“possession“onalargescalebegantobebroughtwithinthescopeofmedicalresearch，andthemanwholedinthisevolutionofmedicalsciencewasParacelsus。HeitwaswhofirstbademodernEuropethinkforamomentupontheideathatthesediseasesareinflictedneitherbysaintsnordemons，andthatthe“dancingpossession“issimplyaformofdisease，ofwhichthecuremaybeeffectedbyproperremediesandregimen。
Paracelsusappearstohaveescapedanyseriousinterference：ittooksometime，perhaps，forthetheologicalleaderstounderstandthathehad“letanewidealooseupontheplanet。”
buttheysoonunderstoodit，andtheircoursewassimple。Foraboutfiftyyearsthenewideawaswellkeptunder；butin1563
anotherphysician，JohnWier，ofCleves，reviveditatmuchrisktohispositionandreputation。[387]
[387]ForParacelsus，seeIsensee，vol。i，chap。xi；alsoPettigrew，SuperstitionsconnectedwiththeHistoryandPracticeofMedicineandSurgery，London，1844，introductorychapter。ForWier，seeauthoritiesgiveninmypreviouschapter。
Althoughthenewideawasthusresisted，itmusthavetakensomeholduponthoughtfulmen，forwefindthatinthesecondhalfofthesamecenturytheSt。Vitus’sdanceandformsofdemoniacalpossessionakintoitgraduallydiminishedinfrequencyandweresometimestreatedasdiseases。Intheseventeenthcentury，sofarasthenorthofEuropeisconcerned，thesedisplaysof“possession“onagreatscalehadalmostentirelyceased；hereandtherecasesappeared，buttherewasnolongerthewildrageextendingovergreatdistrictsandafflictingthousandsofpeople。Yetitwas，asweshallsee，inthissameseventeenthcentury，inthelastexpiringthroesofthissuperstition，thatitledtotheworstactsofcruelty。[388]
[388]Astothisdiminutionofwidespreadepidemicattheendofthesixteenthcentury，seecitationsfromSchenckvonGrafenberginHecker，asabove；alsoHorst。
WhilethisSatanicinfluencehadbeenexertedonsogreatascalethroughoutnorthernEurope，adisplaystrangelylikeit，yetstrangelyunlikeit，hadbeengoingoninItaly。There，too，epidemicsofdancingandjumpingseizedgroupsandcommunities；
buttheywereattributedtoaphysicalcause——thetheorybeingthatthebiteofatarantulainsomewayprovokedasupernaturalintervention，ofwhichdancingwastheaccompanimentandcure。
InthemiddleofthesixteenthcenturyFracastoromadeanevidentimpressionontheleadersofItalianopinionbyusingmedicalmeansinthecureofthepossessed；thoughitisworthyofnotethatthemedicinewhichheappliedsuccessfullywassuchaswenowknowcouldnotbyanydirecteffectsofitsownaccomplishanycure：whatevereffectitexertedwaswroughtupontheimaginationofthesufferer。Thisformof“possession。”then，passedoutofthesupernaturaldomain，andbecameknownas“tarantism。”ThoughitcontinuedmuchlongerthanthecorrespondingmanifestationsinnorthernEurope，bythebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturyithadnearlydisappeared；and，thoughspecialmanifestationsofitonasmallscalestillbreakoutoccasionally，itsmainsurvivalisthe“tarantella。”whichthetravellerseesdancedatNaplesasacatchpennyassaultuponhispurse。[389]
[389]SeeHecker’sEpidemicsoftheMiddleAges，pp。87-104；alsoextractsandobservationsinCarpenter’sMentalPhysiology，London，1888，pp。321-315；alsoMaudsley，PathologyofMind，pp。
73andfollowing。
But，longbeforethisformof“possession“hadbeguntodisappear，therehadarisennewmanifestations，apparentlymoreinexplicable。Asthefirstgreatepidemicsofdancingandjumpinghadtheirmainorigininareligiousceremony，sovariousnewformshadtheirprincipalsourceinwhatweresupposedtobecentresofreligiouslife——intheconvents，andmoreespeciallyinthoseforwomen。
Outofmanyexampleswemaytakeafewastypical。
Inthefifteenthcenturythechroniclersassureusthat，aninmateofaGermannunneryhavingbeenseizedwithapassionforbitinghercompanions，hermaniaspreaduntilmost，ifnotall，ofherfellow-nunsbegantobiteeachother；andthatthispassionforbitingpassedfromconventtoconventintootherpartsofGermany，intoHolland，andevenacrosstheAlpsintoItaly。
So，too，inaFrenchconvent，whenanunbegantomewlikeacat，othersbeganmewing；thediseasespread，andwasonlycheckedbyseveremeasures。[390]
[390]SeecitationfromZimmermann’sSolitude，inCarpenter，pp。
34，314。
InthesixteenthcenturytheProtestantReformationgavenewforcetowitchcraftpersecutionsinGermany，thenewChurchendeavouringtoshowthatinzealandpowersheexceededtheold。
ButinFranceinfluentialopinionseemednotsofavourabletotheseformsofdiabolicalinfluence，especiallyafterthepublicationofMontaigne’sEssays，in1580，hadspreadascepticalatmosphereovermanyleadingminds。
In1588occurredinFranceacasewhichindicatesthegrowthofthisscepticaltendencyeveninthehigherregionsofthefrenchChurch，InthatyearMarthaBrossier，acountrygirl，was，itwasclaimed，possessedofthedevil。TheyoungwomanwastoallappearanceunderdirectSatanicinfluence。Sheroamedabout，beggingthatthedemonmightbecastoutofher，andherimprecationsandblasphemiesbroughtconsternationwherevershewent。Myth-makingbeganonalargescale；storiesgrewandsped。TheCapuchinmonksthunderedfromthepulpitthroughoutFranceregardingtheseproofsofthepowerofSatan：thealarmspread，untilatlastevenjovial，scepticalKingHenryIVwasdisquieted，andthereigningPopewasaskedtotakemeasurestowardofftheevil。
Fortunately，therethensatintheepiscopalchairofAngersaprelatewhohadapparentlyimbibedsomethingofMontaigne’sscepticism——Miron；and，whenthecasewasbroughtbeforehim，hesubmittedittothemosttime-honouredofsacredtests。Hefirstbroughtintothegirl’spresencetwobowls，onecontainingholywater，theotherordinaryspringwater，butallowedhertodrawafalseinferenceregardingthecontentsofeach：theresultwasthatatthepresentationoftheholywaterthedevilswereperfectlycalm，butwhentriedwiththeordinarywatertheythrewMarthaintoconvulsions。
Thenextexperimentmadebytheshrewdbishopwastosimilarpurpose。Hecommandedloudlythatabookofexorcismsbebrought，andunderapreviousarrangement，hisattendantsbroughthimacopyofVirgil。NosoonerhadthebishopbeguntoreadthefirstlineoftheAeneidthanthedevilsthrewMarthaintoconvulsions。OnanotheroccasionaLatindictionary，whichshehadreasontobelievewasabookofexorcisms，producedasimilareffect。
Althoughthebishopwastherebyledtopronouncethewholematteramixtureofinsanityandimposture，theCapuchinmonksdenouncedthisviewasgodless。TheyinsistedthatthesetestsreallyprovedthepresenceofSatan——showinghiscunningincoveringuptheproofsofhisexistence。Thepeopleatlargesidedwiththeirpreachers，andMarthawastakentoParis，wherevariousexorcismsweretried，andtheParisianmobbecameasdevotedtoherastheyhadbeentwentyyearsbeforetothemurderersoftheHuguenots，astheybecametwocenturieslatertoRobespierre，andastheymorerecentlyweretoGeneralBoulanger。
ButBishopMironwasnottheonlysceptic。TheCardinaldeGondi，ArchbishopofParis，chargedthemosteminentphysiciansofthecity，andamongthemRiolan，toreportuponthecase。
Variousexaminationsweremade，andtheverdictwasthatMarthawassimplyahystericalimpostor。Thanks，then，tomedicalscience，andtothesetwoenlightenedecclesiasticswhosummoneditsaid，whatfiftyorahundredyearsearlierwouldhavebeenthecentreofawidespreadepidemicofpossessionwasisolated，andhinderedfromproducinganationalcalamity。
Inthefollowingyearthishealthfulgrowthofscepticismcontinued。Fourteenpersonshadbeencondemnedtodeathforsorcery，butpublicopinionwasstrongenoughtosecureanewexaminationbyaspecialcommission，whichreportedthat“theprisonersstoodmoreinneedofmedicinethanofpunishment。”andtheywerereleased。[391]
[391]FortheBrossiercase，seeClameil，LaFolie，tomei，livre3，c。2。ForthecasesatTours，seeMadden，Phantasmata，vol。
i，pp。309，310。
Butduringtheseventeenthcentury，theclergygenerallyhavingexertedthemselvesheroicallytoremovethis“evilheartofunbelief“solargelyduetoMontaigne，atheologicalreactionwasbroughtonnotonlyinFrancebutinallpartsoftheChristianworld，andthebeliefindiabolicpossession，thoughcertainlydying，flickereduphectic，hot，andmalignantthroughthewholecentury。In1611wehaveatypicalcaseatAix。Anepidemicofpossessionhavingoccurredthere，Gauffridi，amanofnote，wasburnedatthestakeasthecauseofthetrouble。Michaelis，oneofthepriestlyexorcists，declaredthathehaddrivenoutsixty-fivehundreddevilsfromoneofthepossessed。Similarepidemicsoccurredinvariouspartsoftheworld。[392]
[392]SeeDagron，chap。ii。