andfromthelasteditionofhisSystemaNaturaehequietlyleftoutthestronglyorthodoxstatementofthefixityofeachspecies，whichhehadinsisteduponinhisearlierworks。Buthemadenoadequatedeclaration。Whathemightexpectifheopenlyanddecidedlysanctionedanewerviewhelearnedtohiscost；
warningscamespeedilybothfromtheCatholicandProtestantsides。
AtatimewheneminentprelatesoftheolderChurchwereeulogizingdebauchedprinceslikeLouisXV，andusingtheunspeakablyobscenecasuistryoftheJesuitSanchezintheeducationofthepriesthoodastotherelationsofmentowomen，themodestyoftheChurchauthoritieswassoshockedbyLinnaeus’sproofsofasexualsysteminplantsthatformanyyearshiswritingswereprohibitedinthePapalStatesandinvariousotherpartsofEuropewhereclericalauthoritywasstrongenoughtoresistthenewscientificcurrent。Notuntil1773didoneofthemorebroad-mindedcardinals——Zelanda——succeedingainingpermissionthatProf。MinasishoulddiscusstheLinnaeansystematRome。
AndProtestantismwasquiteasoppressive。InalettertoEloius，LinnaeustellsoftherebukegiventosciencebyoneofthegreatLutheranprelatesofSweden，BishopSvedberg。FromvariouspartsofEuropedetailedstatementshadbeensenttotheRoyalAcademyofSciencethatwaterhadbeenturnedintoblood，andwell-meaningecclesiasticshadseeninthisanindicationofthewrathofGod，certainlyagainsttheregionsinwhichthesemiracleshadoccurredandpossiblyagainstthewholeworld。A
miracleofthissortappearinginSweden，Linnaeuslookedintoitcarefullyandfoundthatthereddeningofthewaterwascausedbydensemassesofminuteinsects。Newsofthisexplanationhavingreachedthebishop，hetookthefieldagainstit；hedenouncedthisscientificdiscoveryas“aSatanicabyss“abyssumSatanae，anddeclared“ThereddeningofthewaterisNOT
natural。”and“whenGodallowssuchamiracletotakeplaceSatanendeavours，andsodohisungodly，self-reliant，self-sufficient，andworldlytools，tomakeitsignifynothing。”InfaceofthisonslaughtLinnaeusretreated；hetellshiscorrespondentthat“itisdifficulttosayanythinginthismatter。”andshieldshimselfunderthestatement“Itiscertainlyamiraclethatsomanymillionsofcreaturescanbesosuddenlypropagated。”and“itshowsundoubtedlytheall-wisepoweroftheInfinite。”
Thegreatnaturalist，grownoldandwornwithlaboursforscience，couldnolongerresistthecontemporarytheology；hesettledintoobediencetoit，andwhilethemodificationofhisearlyorthodoxviewwas，aswehaveseen，quietlyimbeddedinthefinaleditionofhisgreatwork，hemadenospecialefforttoimpressitupontheworld。ToallappearancehecontinuedtoadheretothedoctrinethatallexistingspecieshadbeencreatedbytheAlmighty“inthebeginning。”andthatsince“thebeginning“nonewspecieshadappeared。
Yetevenhisgreatauthoritycouldnotarresttheswellingtide；
moreandmorevastbecamethenumberofspecies，moreandmoreincomprehensibleundertheoldtheorybecamethenewlyascertainedfactsingeographicaldistribution，moreandmoreitwasfeltthattheuniverseandanimatedbeingshadcomeintoexistencebysomeprocessotherthanaspecialcreation“inthebeginning。”andthequestionwasconstantlypressing，“ByWHAT
process？”
Throughoutthewholeoftheeighteenthcenturyonemanwasatworkonnaturalhistorywhomighthavecontributedmuchtowardananswertothisquestion：thismanwasBuffon。Hispowersofresearchandthoughtwereremarkable，andhisgiftinpresentingresultsofresearchandthoughtshowedgenius。HehadcaughttheideaofanevolutioninNaturebythevariationofspecies，andwaslikelytomakeagreatadvancewithit；buthe，too，wasmadetofeelthepoweroftheology。
AslongashegavepleasingdescriptionsofanimalstheChurchpettedhim，butwhenhebegantodeducetruthsofphilosophicalimportthebatteriesoftheSorbonnewereopeneduponhim；hewasmadetoknowthat“thesacreddepositoftruthcommittedtotheChurch“was，that“inthebeginningGodmadetheheavensandtheearth“andthat“allthingsweremadeatthebeginningoftheworld。”Forhissimplestatementoftruthsinnaturalsciencewhichareto-daytruisms，hewas，aswehaveseen，draggedforthbythetheologicalfaculty，forcedtorecantpublicly，andtoprinthisrecantation。Inthisheannounced，“Iabandoneverythinginmybookrespectingtheformationoftheearth，andgenerallyallwhichmaybecontrarytothenarrativeofMoses。”[21]
[21]ForDescartesandhisrelationtotheCopernicantheory，seeSaisset，DescartesetsesPrecurseurs；alsoFouillee，Descartes，Paris，1893，chaps。iiandiii；alsootherauthoritiescitedinmychapteronAstronomy；forhisrelationtothetheoryofevolution，seethePrincipesdePhilosophie，3emepartie，S45。
FordeMaillet，seeQuatrefages，DarwinetsesPrecurseursfrancais，chapi，citingD’Archiac，Paleontologie，Stratigraphie，vol。i；also，Perrier，LaPhilosophiezoologiqueavantDarwin，chap。vi；alsotheadmirablearticleEvolution，byHuxley，inEncy。Brit。ThetitleofDeMaillet’sbookisTelliamed，ouEntretiensd’unPhilosopheindienavecunMissionairefrancaissurlaDiminutiondelaMer，1748，1756。ForBuffon，seetheauthoritiespreviouslygiven，alsothechapteronGeologyinthiswork。FortheresistanceofbothCatholicandProtestantauthoritiestotheLinnaeansystemandideas，seeAlberg，LifeofLinnaeus，London，1888，pp。143-147，and237。AstothecreationmedallionsattheCathedralofUpsala，itisasomewhatcuriouscoincidencethatthepresentwritercameuponthemwhilevisitingthatedificeduringthepreparationofthischapter。
ButallthistriumphoftheChaldeo-BabyloniancreationlegendswhichtheChurchhadinheritedavailedbutlittle。
Forabouttheendoftheeighteenthcenturyfruitfulsuggestionsandevenclearpresentationsofthisorthatpartofalargeevolutionarydoctrinecamethickandfast，andfromthemostdivergentquarters。EspeciallyremarkablewerethosewhichcamefromErasmusDarwininEngland，fromMaupertuisinFrance，fromOkeninSwitzerland，andfromHerder，and，mostbrilliantlyofall，fromGoetheinGermany。
Twomenamongthesethinkersmustbeespeciallymentioned——TreviranusinGermanyandLamarckinFrance；eachindependentlyoftheotherdrewtheworldmorecompletelythaneverbeforeinthisdirection。
FromTreviranuscame，in1802，hisworkonbiology，andinthishegaveforththeideathatfromformsoflifeoriginallysimplehadarisenallhigherorganizationsbygradualdevelopment；thateverylivingfeaturehasacapacityforreceivingmodificationsofitsstructurefromexternalinfluences；andthatnospecieshadbecomereallyextinct，butthateachhadpassedintosomeotherspecies。FromLamarckcameaboutthesametimehisResearches，andalittlelaterhisZoologicalPhilosophy，whichintroducedanewfactorintotheprocessofevolution——theactionoftheanimalitselfinitseffortstowardadevelopmenttosuitnewneeds——andhegaveashisprincipalconclusionsthefollowing：
1。Lifetendstoincreasethevolumeofeachlivingbodyandofallitspartsuptoalimitdeterminedbyitsownnecessities。
2。Newwantsinanimalsgiverisetoneworgans。
3。Thedevelopmentoftheseorgansisinproportiontotheiremployment。
4。Newdevelopmentsmaybetransmittedtooffspring。
Hiswell-knownexamplestoillustratetheseviews，suchasthatofsuccessivegenerationsofgiraffeslengtheningtheirnecksbystretchingthemtogatherhigh-growingfoliage，andofsuccessivegenerationsofkangarooslengtheningandstrengtheningtheirhindlegsbythenecessityofkeepingthemselveserectwhilejumping，provokedlaughter，buttheverycomicalityoftheseillustrationsaidedtofastenhismainconclusioninmen’smemories。
Inboththesestatements，imperfectastheywere，greattruthswereembodied——truthswhichweresuretogrow。
Lamarck’sdeclaration，especially，thatthedevelopmentoforgansisinratiototheiremployment，andhisindicationsofthereproductioninprogenyofwhatisgainedorlostinparentsbytheinfluenceofcircumstances，enteredasamosteffectiveforceintothedevelopmentoftheevolutiontheory。
ThenextgreatsuccessorintheapostolateofthisideaoftheuniversewasGeoffroySaint-Hilaire。Asearlyas1795hehadbeguntoformatheorythatspeciesarevariousmodificationsofthesametype，andthistheoryhedeveloped，testingitatvariousstagesasNaturewasmoreandmoredisplayedtohim。Itfelltohislottobearthebruntinastruggleagainstheavyoddswhichlastedmanyyears。
Forthemanwhonowtookupthewarfare，avowedlyforsciencebutunconsciouslyfortheology，wastheforemostnaturalistthenliving——Cuvier。Hisscientificeminencewasdeserved；thehighesthonoursofhisownandothercountriesweregivenhim，andheborethemworthily。AnImperialCouncillorunderNapoleon；PresidentoftheCouncilofPublicInstructionandChancelloroftheUniversityundertherestoredBourbons；GrandOfficeroftheLegionofHonour，aPeerofFrance，MinisteroftheInterior，andPresidentoftheCouncilofStateunderLouisPhilippe；hewaseminentinallthesecapacities，andyetthedignitygivenbysuchhighadministrativepositionswasasnothingcomparedtohisleadershipinnaturalscience。Sciencethroughouttheworldacknowledgedinhimitschiefcontemporaryornament，andtothishourhisfamerightlycontinues。Buttherewasinhim，asinLinnaeus，asurvivalofcertaintheologicalwaysoflookingattheuniverseandcertaintheologicalconceptionsofaplanofcreation；itmustbesaid，too，thatwhilehistemperamentmadehimdistrustnewhypotheses，ofwhichhehadseensomanybornanddie，hisenvironmentasagreatfunctionaryofstate，honoured，admired，almostadoredbythegreatest，notonlyinthestatebutintheChurch，hissolicitudelestscienceshouldreceivesomedetrimentbyopenlyresistingtheChurch，whichhadrecapturedEuropeaftertheFrenchRevolution，andhadmadeofitsenemiesitsfootstool——alltheseconsiderationsledhimtoopposethenewtheory。Amidtheplaudits，then，oftheforemostchurch-menhethrewacrossthepathoftheevolutiondoctrinesthewholemassofhisauthorityinfavouroftheoldtheoryofcatastrophicchangesandspecialcreations。
GeoffroySaint-Hilairestoutlywithstoodhim，bravingnon-recognition，ill-treatment，andridicule。Treviranus，afaroffinhismathematicallecture-roomatBremen，seemedsimplyforgotten。
Butthecurrentofevolutionarythoughtcouldnotthusbechecked：dammedupforatime，itbrokeoutinnewchannelsandinwaysandplacesleastexpected；turnedawayfromFrance，itappearedespeciallyinEngland，wheregreatpaleontologistsandgeologistsarosewhoseworkculminatedinthatofLyell。
Specialiststhroughoutalltheworldnowbecamemorevigorousthanever，gatheringfactsandthinkingupontheminawaywhichcausedthespecialcreationtheorytoshrinkmoreandmore。
Broaderandmorefullbecamethesevariousrivulets，soontouniteinonegreatstreamofthought。
In1813Dr。Wellsdevelopedatheoryofevolutionbynaturalselectiontoaccountforvarietiesinthehumanrace。About182O
DeanHerbert，eminentasanauthorityinhorticulture，avowedhisconvictionthatspeciesarebutfixedvarieties。In1831PatrickMatthewsstumbleduponandstatedthemaindoctrineofnaturalselectioninevolution；andothershereandthere，inEuropeandAmerica，caughtaninklingofit。
Butnooneoutsideofacircleapparentlyuninfluentialcaredforthesethings：theChurchwasserene：ontheContinentithadobtainedreactionarycontrolofcourts，cabinets，anduniversities；inEngland，DeanCockburnwasdenouncingMarySomervilleandthegeologiststothedelightofchurchmen；andtheRev。MellorBrownwasdoingthesamethingfortheedificationofdissenters。
InAmericathemildsuggestionsofSillimanandhiscompeersweremetbytheprotestationsoftheAndovertheologiansheadedbyMosesStuart。NeitherofthegreatEnglishuniversities，asarule，tookanynoticeoftheinnovatorssavebysneers。
Tothiscurrentofthoughttherewasjoinedanewelementwhen，in1844，RobertChamberspublishedhisVestigesofCreation。
Thebookwasattractiveandwaswidelyread。InChambers’sviewtheseveralseriesofanimatedbeings，fromthesimplestandoldestuptothehighestandmostrecent，weretheresultoftwodistinctimpulses，eachgivenonceandforalltimebytheCreator。Thefirstofthesewasanimpulseimpartedtoformsoflife，liftingthemgraduallythroughhighergrades；thesecondwasanimpulsetendingtomodifyorganicsubstancesinaccordancewithexternalcircumstances；infact，thedoctrineofthebookwasevolutiontemperedbymiracle——astretchingoutofthecreativeactthroughalltime——apiousversionofLamarck。
Tworesultsfollowed，onemirth-provoking，theotherleadingtoseriousthought。Theamusingresultwasthatthetheologiansweregreatlyalarmedbythebook：itwasloudlyinsistedthatitpromotedatheism。Lookingbackalongthelineofthoughtwhichhassincebeendeveloped，onefeelsthattheoldertheologiansoughttohaveputupthanksgivingsforChambers’stheory，andprayersthatitmightprovetrue。Themoreseriousresultwasthatitaccustomedmen’smindstoabeliefinevolutionasinsomeformpossibleorevenprobable。Inthiswayitwasprovisionallyofservice。