ForthePhysiologus，Bestiaries，etc。，seeBergerdeXivrey，TraditionsTeratologiques；alsoHippeau’seditionoftheBestiaredeGuillaumedeNormandie，Caen，1852，andsuchmedieavalbooksofExemplaastheLumenNaturae；alsoHoefer，HistoiredelaZoologie；alsoRambaud，HistoiredelaCivilisationFrancaise，Paris，1885，voli，pp。368，369；alsoCardinalPitra，prefacetotheSpicilegiumSolismense，Paris，1885，passim；alsoCarus，GeschichtederZoologie；andforanadmirablesummary，thearticlePhysiologusintheEncyclopediaBritannica。IntheilluminatedmanuscriptsintheLibraryofCornellUniversityaresomeverystrikingexamplesofgrotesques。ForadmirablyillustratedarticlesontheBestiaries，seeCahierandMartin，Melangesd’Archeologie，Paris，1851，1852，and1856，vol。iiofthefirstseries，pp。85-232，andsecondseries，volumeonCuriositiesMysterieuses，pp。106-164；alsoJ。R。Allen，EarlyChristianSymbolisminGreatBritainandIrelandLondon，1887，lecturevi；foranexhaustivediscussionofthesubject，seeDasThierbuchdesnormannischenDichtersGuillaumeleClerc，herausgegebenvonReinisch，Leipsic，1890；andforanItalianexamlpe，GoldstaubandWendriner，EinTosco-VenezianischerBestiarius，Halle，1892，whereisgiven，onpp。369-371，averypiousbutverycomicaltraditionregardingthebeaver，hardlymentionabletoearspolite。ForFriarBartholomew，seebesideshisbookitselfMedievalLore，editedbyRobertSteele，London，1893，pp。118-138。
Hereandthereamongmenwhowerefreefromchurchcontrolwehaveworkofabettersort。InthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiesAbdAllatifmadeobservationsuponthenaturalhistoryofEgyptwhichshowedatrulyscientificspirit，andtheEmperorFrederickIIattemptedtopromoteamorefruitfulstudyofNature；butoneofthesemenwasabhorredasaMussulmanandtheotherasaninfidel。FarmoreinaccordancewiththespiritofthetimewastheecclesiasticGiraldusCambrensis，whosebookonthetopographyofIrelandbestowsmuchattentionupontheanimalsoftheisland，andrarelyfailstomakeeachcontributeanappropriatemoral。Forexample，hesaysthatinIreland“eaglesliveforsomanyagesthattheyseemtocontendwitheternityitself；soalsothesaints，havingputofftheoldmanandputonthenew，obtaintheblessedfruitofeverlastinglife。”
Again，hetellsus：“Eaglesoftenflysohighthattheirwingsarescorchedbythesun；sothosewhointheHolyScripturesstrivetounravelthedeepandhiddensecretsoftheheavenlymysteries，beyondwhatisallowed，fallbelow，asifthewingsofthepresumptuousimaginationsonwhichtheyarebornewerescorched。”
Inoneofthegreatmenofthefollowingcenturyappearedagleamofhealthfulcriticism：AlberttheGreat，inhisworkontheanimals，dissentsfromthewidespreadbeliefthatcertainbirdsspringfromtreesandarenourishedbythesap，andalsofromthetheorythatsomearegeneratedintheseafromdecayingwood。
Butitrequiredmanygenerationsforsuchscepticismtoproducemucheffect，andwefindamongtheillustrationsinaneditionofMandevillepublishedjustbeforetheReformationnotonlycarefulaccountsbutpicturedrepresentationsbothofbirdsandofbeastsproducedinthefruitoftrees。[15]
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