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　　NowtheSpeenhamlandscaledidnotrepresentsomeeasyandluxuriousstandard

　　ofliving；itrepresentedtheminimumonwhichitwassupposedthataman

　　employedinagriculturecouldsupportlife。Inthirty-fiveyearsthestandard

　　haddropped，accordingtoM’Culloch’sstatement，asmuchasathird，and

　　thisnotbecauseofwarorfamine，forin1826Englandhadhadelevenyears

　　ofpeace，butintheordinarycourseofthelifeofthenation。Issucha

　　declineinthestandardofliferecordedanywhereelseinhistory？

　　Howdidthelabourersliveatallundertheseconditions？Theirlifewas，

　　ofcourse，wretchedandsqualidintheextreme。Cobbettdescribesagroup

　　ofwomenlabourerswhomhemetbytheroadsideinHampshireas’suchanassemblage

　　ofragsasIneversawbeforeevenamongstthehoppersatFarnham。’Ofthe

　　labourersnearCrickladehesaid：’Theirdwellingsarelittlebetterthan

　　pig-beds，andtheirlooksindicatethattheirfoodisnotnearlyequalto

　　thatofapig。Thesewretchedhovelsarestuckuponlittlebedsofground

　　ontheroadsidewherethespacehasbeenwiderthantheroaddemanded。In

　　manyplacestheyhavenottworodstoahovel。Itseemsasiftheyhadbeen

　　sweptoffthefieldsbyahurricane，andhaddroppedandfoundshelterunder

　　thebanksontheroadside。Yesterdaymorningwasasharpfrost，andthis

　　hadsetthepoorcreaturestodigginguptheirlittleplotsofpotatoes。

　　InmywholelifeIneversawhumanwretchednessequaltothis；no，noteven

　　amongstthefreenegroesinAmericawho，onanaverage，donotworkoneday

　　outoffour。’35*Thelabourers’cottagesinLeicestershirehefoundwere

　　’hovelsmadeofmudandstraw，bitsofglassorofoldcast-offwindows，

　　withoutframesorhingesfrequently，andmerelystuckinthemudwall。Enter

　　themandlookatthebitsofchairsorstools，thewretchedboardstacked

　　togethertoserveforatable，thefloorofpebblebrokenorofthebare

　　ground；lookatthethingcalledabed，andsurveytheragsonthebacks

　　oftheinhabitants。’36*ADorsetshireclergyman，awitnessbeforetheCommittee

　　onWagesin1824，saidthatthelabourerslivedalmostentirelyonteaand

　　potatoes；aBedfordshirelabourersaidthatheandhisfamilylivedmainly

　　onbreadandcheeseandwater，andthatsometimesforamonthtogetherhe

　　nevertastedmeat；aSuffolkmagistratedescribedhowalaboureroutofwork，

　　convictedofstealingwood，beggedtobesentatoncetoaHouseofCorrection，

　　wherehehopedtofindfoodandemployment。ifDavieshadwrittenanaccount

　　ofthelabouringclassesin1820or1830，thepicturehedrewin1795would

　　haveseemedbrightincomparison。Buteventhiskindoflifecouldnotbe

　　supportedonsuchprovisionaswasmadebytheparish。How，then，didthe

　　labourersmaintainanykindofexistencewhensocietyceasedtopiecetogether

　　aminimumlivelihoodoutofratesandwages？

　　Fortheanswertothisquestionwemustturntothehistoryofcrimeand

　　punishment；totheReportsoftheParliamentaryCommitteesonLabourers’

　　WagesontheGameLaws，onEmigration1826and1827，

　　onCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsandSecondaryPunishments1827，

　　1828，1831，and1832，andtheevidenceofthosewhowereintouchwiththis

　　sideofvillagelife。Fromthesesourceswelearnthat，rateaidnotbeing

　　sufficienttobringwagestothemaintenancelevel，poaching，smuggling，

　　andultimatelythievingwerecalledintorehabilitatethelabourer’seconomic

　　position。37*Hewasdriventothewagesofcrime。Thehistoryoftheagricultural

　　labourerinthisgenerationiswritteninthecodeoftheGameLaws，the

　　growingbrutalityoftheCriminalLaw，andthepreoccupationoftherich

　　withtheefficacyofpunishment。

　　WeknowfromFieldingwithwhatsortofjusticethemagistratestreated

　　personsaccusedofpoachinginthereignofGeorgeIII’sgrandfather，but

　　whenhewrotehisaccountofSquireWestern，andwhenBlackstonewrotethat

　　theGameLawshadraisedupalittleNimrodineverymanor，thebloodof

　　menandboyshadnotyetbeenspiltforthepleasuresoftherich。itis

　　onlyafterFieldingandBlackstonewerebothintheirgravesthatthispage

　　ofhistorybecamecrimson，andthatthegentlemenofEnglandtooktoguarding

　　theirspecialamusementsbymethodsofwhichaMemberofParliamentdeclared

　　thatthenoblesofFrancehadnotventuredontheirlikeinthedaysoftheir

　　mostsplendidarrogance。ThelittleNimrodswhomadeandapplied。theircode

　　wereasmallandselectclass。Theywerethepersonsqualifiedunderthe

　　lawofCharlesIItoshootgame，i。e。，personswhopossessedafreeholdestate

　　ofatleast&#163；100ayear，oraleaseholdestateofatleast&#163；150

　　ayear，orthesonorheir-apparentofanesquireorpersonofhigherdegree。

　　ThelegislationthatoccupiessomuchofEnglishhistoryduringaperiod

　　ofmiseryandfamineisdevotedtotheprotectionofthemonopolyofthis

　　class，comprisinglessthanoneintenthousandofthepeopleofEngland。

　　AMemberofParliamentnamedWarburtonsaidintheHouseofCommonsthat

　　theonlyparalleltothismonopolywastobefoundinMariner’saccountof

　　theTongaIslands，whereratswerepreservedasgame。Anybodymighteatrats

　　there，butnobodywasallowedtokillthemexceptpersonsdescendedfrom

　　godsorkings。

　　Withthegeneralgrowthofupper-classrichesandluxurytherecameover

　　shootingachangecorrespondingwiththechangethatturnedhuntinginto

　　amagnificentandextravagantspectacle。Thehabitsetinofpreservinggame

　　ingreatmasses，oforganisingthebattue，ofmaintainingarmiesofkeepers。

　　Inmanypartsofthecountry，pheasantswerenowintroduCedforthefirst

　　time。Whereasgamehadhithertokeptsomethingofthewildness，andvagrancy，

　　andcarelessfreedomofNature，thewoodswerenowpackedwithtameanddocile

　　birds，whosegayfeatherssparkledamongthetrees，beforetheeyesofthe

　　half-starvedlabourersbreakingstonesontheroadathalfacrownaweek。

　　ThechangeisdescribedbywitnessessuchasSirJamesGrahamandSirThomas

　　Baring，magistratesrespectivelyinCumberlandandHampshire，beforethe

　　SelectCommitteeonCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsin1827。England

　　was，infact，passingthroughaprocesspreciselyoppositetothatwhich

　　hadtakenplaceinFrance：thesportoftherichwasbecomingmoreandmore

　　ofanelaboratesystem，andmoreofavestedinterest。Thisdevelopmentwas

　　markedbythegrowthofanoffensivecombinationamonggamepreservers；in

　　somepartsofthecountrygameassociationswereformed，fortheexpress

　　purposeofpayingthecostsofprosecutions，sothatthepoacherhadagainst

　　himnotmerelyabenchofgamepreservers，butaringofsquires，asort

　　ofHolyAllianceforthepunishmentofsocialrebels，whichdrewitsmeshes

　　notroundaparishbutroundacounty。Simultaneously，aswehaveseen，a

　　generalchangewascomingoverthecircumstancesandpositionofthepoor。

　　Themassofthepeoplewerelosingtheirrightsandindependence；theywere

　　beingforcedintoanabsolutedependenceonwages，andwerelivingonthe

　　brinkoffamine。Thesetwodevelopmentsmustbekeptinmindinwatching

　　thebuildingupofthegamecodeinthelastphaseoftheancientr&eacute；gime。

　　TheActsforprotectinggamepassedaftertheaccessionofGeorgeIII

　　areinacrescendooffierceness。ThefirstimportantActwaspassedin1770。

　　UnderthisActanyonewhokilledgameofanykindbetweensunsettingand

　　sunrising，orusedanygun，ordog，snare，net，orotherenginefordestroying

　　gameatnight，was，onconvictionbyonewitnessbeforeoneJusticeofthe

　　Peace，tobepunishedwithimprisonmentfornotlessthanthreemonthsor

　　morethansix。Forasubsequentoffencehewastobeimprisonedfornotmore

　　thantwelvemonthsorlessthansix，andtobewhippedpubliclybetweenthe

　　hoursoftwelveandoneo’clock。Thiswaslightpunishmentcomparedwith

　　themeasuresthatweretofollow。Intheyear1800，theyearofMarengo，

　　whenallEnglandwasbracedupforitsgreatduelwiththecommonenemyof

　　freedomandorder，andthelabourersweretoldeverydaythattheywould

　　bethefirsttosufferifNapoleonlandedinEngland，theEnglishParliament

　　foundtimetopassanotherActtopunishpoachers，andtoteachjusticeto

　　mendherslowpace。BythisActwhentwoormorepersonswerefoundinany

　　forest，chase，park，wood，plantation，paddock，field，meadow，orotheropen

　　orenclosedground，havinganygun，net，engine，orotherinstrument，with

　　theintenttodestroy，take，orkillgame，theyweretobeseizedbykeepers

　　orservants，andonconvictionbeforeaJ。P。，theyweretobetreatedas

　　roguesandvagabondsundertheActof1744，i。e。，theyweretobepunished

　　byimprisonmentwithhardlabour；anincorrigiblerogue，i。e。，asecondoffender，

　　wastobeimprisonedfortwoyearswithwhipping。Further，iftheoffender

　　wasovertwelveyearsofage，themagistratesmightsentencehimtoserve

　　inthearmyornavy。IfanincorrigiblerogueescapedfromtheHouseofCorrection

　　hewastobeliabletotransportationforsevenyears。

　　TwoconsequencesfollowedfromthisAct。Nowthatpunishmentwasmade

　　sosevere，thepoacherhadastrongreasonforviolence：surrendermeant

　　serviceinacondemnedregiment，andhethereforetooktherisksofresistance。

　　Thesecondconsequencewasthepracticeofpoachinginlargegroups。The

　　organisationofpoachinggangswasnotanaturaldevelopmentoftheindustry；

　　itwasadoptedinself-defence。38*ThisActledinevitablytothosebattles

　　betweengamekeepersandlabourersthatbecamesoconspicuousafeatureof

　　Englishlifeatthistime，andin1803LordEllenboroughpassedanActwhich

　　providedthatanypersonswhopresentedagunortried，tostaborcut’with

　　intenttoobstruct，resist，orpreventthelawfulapprehensionordetainer

　　ofthepersonorpersonssostabbingorcutting，orthelawfulapprehension

　　ordetainerofanyofhis，her，ortheiraccomplicesforanyoffencesfor

　　whichhe，she，ortheymayrespectivelybeliablebylawtobeapprehended，

　　imprisoned，ordetained，’shouldsufferdeathasafelon。In1816，whenpeace

　　andthefallofpriceswerebringingnewproblemsintheirtrain，therewent

　　throughParliament，withoutasyllableofdebate，aBillofwhichRomilly

　　saidthatnoparalleltoitcouldbefoundinthelawsofanycountryin

　　theworld。BythatActapersonwhowasfoundatnightunarmed，butwith

　　anetforpoaching，inanyforest，chase，orparkwastobepunishedbytransportation

　　forsevenyears。ThisActRomillyinducedParliamenttorepealinthefollowing

　　year，buttheActthattookitsplaceonlysoftenedthelawtotheextent

　　ofwithdrawingthispunishmentfrompersonsfoundwithnets，butwithout

　　gunsorbludgeons：itenactedthatanypersonsofound，armedwithgun，crossbow，

　　firearms，bludgeon，oranyotheroffensiveweapon，wastobetriedatQuarter

　　Sessions，andifconvicted，tobesentencedtotransportationforsevenyears：

　　ifsuchoffenderweretoreturntoGreatBritainbeforehistimewasover，

　　hewastobetransportedfortherestofhislife。39*

　　ThissavageAct，thoughbynomeansadeadletter，asParliamentaryReturns

　　show，seemstohavedefeateditsownend，forin1828itwasrepealed，because，

　　asLordWharncliffetoldtheHouseofLords，therewasacertainreluctance

　　onthepartofjuriestoconvictaprisoner，whentheyknewthatconviction

　　wouldbefollowedbytransportation。ThenewActof1828，whichalloweda

　　persontobeconvictedbeforetwomagistrates，reservedtransportationfor

　　thethirdoffence，punishingthefirstoffencebythreemonths’，andthe

　　secondbysixmonths’imprisonment。Buttheconvictedpersonhadtofind

　　suretiesafterhisrelease，orelsegobacktohardlabourforanothersix

　　monthsifitwasafirstoffence，oranothertwelvemonthsifitwashis

　　second。Further，ifthreemenwerefoundinawoodandoneofthemcarried

　　agunorbludgeon，allthreewereliabletobetransportedforfourteenyears。40*

　　Althorp’sBillof1831whichabolishedthequalificationsoftheActofCharles

　　II，gavetherighttoshoottoeverylandownerwhotookoutacertificate，

　　andmadethesaleofgamelegal，proposedinitsoriginalformtoalterthese

　　punishments，makingthatforthefirstandsecondoffencesrathermoresevere

　　fourandeightmonths，andthatforthethird，twoyears’imprisonment。

　　InCommitteeintheHouseofCommonsthetwoyearswerereducedtooneyear

　　ontheproposalofOratorHunt。TheHouseofLords，however，restoredthe

　　punishmentsoftheActof1828。