Thisfactaloneshowstheextentofthedifferenceswhichexistbetweenthetwonations。
PublicSpiritOfTheTownshipsOfNewEnglandHowthetownshipofNewEnglandwinstheaffectionsofitsinhabitants—DifficultyofcreatinglocalpublicspiritinEurope—TherightsanddutiesoftheAmericantownshipfavorabletoit—CharacteristicsofhomeintheUnitedStates—ManifestationsofpublicspiritinNewEngland—Itshappyeffects。
InAmerica，notonlydomunicipalbodiesexist，buttheyarekeptaliveandsupportedbypublicspirit。ThetownshipofNewEnglandpossessestwoadvantageswhichinfalliblysecuretheattentiveinterestofmankind，namely，independenceandauthority。Itssphereisindeedsmallandlimited，butwithinthatsphereitsactionisunrestrained;anditsindependencegivestoitarealimportancewhichitsextentandpopulationmaynotalwaysensure。
Itistoberememberedthattheaffectionsofmengenerallylieonthesideofauthority。Patriotismisnotdurableinaconquerednation。TheNewEnglanderisattachedtohistownship，notonlybecausehewasborninit，butbecauseitconstitutesasocialbodyofwhichheisamember，andwhosegovernmentclaimsanddeservestheexerciseofhissagacity。InEuropetheabsenceoflocalpublicspiritisafrequentsubjectofregrettothosewhoareinpower;everyoneagreesthatthereisnosurerguaranteeoforderandtranquility，andyetnothingismoredifficulttocreate。Ifthemunicipalbodiesweremadepowerfulandindependent，theauthoritiesofthenationmightbedisunitedandthepeaceofthecountryendangered。Yet，withoutpowerandindependence，atownmaycontaingoodsubjects，butitcanhavenoactivecitizens。AnotherimportantfactisthatthetownshipofNewEnglandissoconstitutedastoexcitethewarmestofhumanaffections，withoutarousingtheambitiouspassionsoftheheartofman。Theofficersofthecountryarenotelected，andtheirauthorityisverylimited。EventheStateisonlyasecond—ratecommunity，whosetranquilandobscureadministrationoffersnoinducementsufficienttodrawmenawayfromthecircleoftheirinterestsintotheturmoilofpublicaffairs。Thefederalgovernmentconferspowerandhonoronthemenwhoconductit;buttheseindividualscanneverbeverynumerous。ThehighstationofthePresidencycanonlybereachedatanadvancedperiodoflife，andtheotherfederalfunctionariesaregenerallymenwhohavebeenfavoredbyfortune，ordistinguishedinsomeothercareer。Suchcannotbethepermanentaimoftheambitious。
Butthetownshipservesasacentreforthedesireofpublicesteem，thewantofexcitinginterests，andthetasteforauthorityandpopularity，inthemidstoftheordinaryrelationsoflife;andthepassionswhichcommonlyembroilsocietychangetheircharacterwhentheyfindaventsonearthedomestichearthandthefamilycircle。
IntheAmericanStatespowerhasbeendisseminatedwithadmirableskillforthepurposeofinterestingthegreatestpossiblenumberofpersonsinthecommonweal。Independentlyoftheelectorswhoarefromtimetotimecalledintoaction，thebodypoliticisdividedintoinnumerablefunctionariesandofficers，whoall，intheirseveralspheres，representthesamepowerfulwholeinwhosenametheyact。Thelocaladministrationthusaffordsanunfailingsourceofprofitandinteresttoavastnumberofindividuals。
TheAmericansystem，whichdividesthelocalauthorityamongsomanycitizens，doesnotscrupletomultiplythefunctionsofthetownofficers。ForintheUnitedStatesitisbelieved，andwithtruth，thatpatriotismisakindofdevotionwhichisstrengthenedbyritualobservance。Inthismannertheactivityofthetownshipiscontinuallyperceptible;itisdailymanifestedinthefulfilmentofadutyortheexerciseofaright，andaconstantthoughgentlemotionisthuskeptupinsocietywhichanimateswithoutdisturbingit。
TheAmericanattacheshimselftohishomeasthemountaineerclingstohishills，becausethecharacteristicfeaturesofhiscountryaretheremoredistinctlymarkedthanelsewhere。TheexistenceofthetownshipsofNewEnglandisingeneralahappyone。Theirgovernmentissuitedtotheirtastes，andchosenbythemselves。InthemidstoftheprofoundpeaceandgeneralcomfortwhichreigninAmericathecommotionsofmunicipaldiscordareunfrequent。Theconductoflocalbusinessiseasy。
Thepoliticaleducationofthepeoplehaslongbeencomplete;sayratherthatitwascompletewhenthepeoplefirstsetfootuponthesoil。InNewEnglandnotraditionexistsofadistinctionofranks;noportionofthecommunityistemptedtooppresstheremainder;andtheabuseswhichmayinjureisolatedindividualsareforgotteninthegeneralcontentmentwhichprevails。Ifthegovernmentisdefective（anditwouldnodoubtbeeasytopointoutitsdeficiencies），thefactthatitreallyemanatesfromthoseitgoverns，andthatitacts，eitherillorwell，caststheprotectingspellofaparentalprideoveritsfaults。Notermofcomparisondisturbsthesatisfactionofthecitizen:Englandformerlygovernedthemassofthecolonies，butthepeoplewasalwayssovereigninthetownshipwhereitsruleisnotonlyanancientbutaprimitivestate。
ThenativeofNewEnglandisattachedtohistownshipbecauseitisindependentandfree:hisco—operationinitsaffairsensureshisattachmenttoitsinterest;thewell—beingitaffordshimsecureshisaffection;anditswelfareistheaimofhisambitionandofhisfutureexertions:hetakesapartineveryoccurrenceintheplace;hepractisestheartofgovernmentinthesmallspherewithinhisreach;heaccustomshimselftothoseformswhichcanaloneensurethesteadyprogressofliberty;heimbibestheirspirit;heacquiresatastefororder，comprehendstheunionorthebalanceofpowers，andcollectsclearpracticalnotionsonthenatureofhisdutiesandtheextentofhisrights。
TheCountiesOfNewEnglandThedivisionofthecountriesinAmericahasconsiderableanalogywiththatofthearrondissementsofFrance。Thelimitsofthecountiesarearbitrarilylaiddown，andthevariousdistrictswhichtheycontainhavenonecessaryconnection，nocommontraditionornaturalsympathy;theirobjectissimplytofacilitatetheadministrationofjustice。
Theextentofthetownshipwastoosmalltocontainasystemofjudicialinstitutions;eachcountyhas，however，acourtofjustice，*fasherifftoexecuteitsdecrees，andaprisonforcriminals。Therearecertainwantswhicharefeltalikebyallthetownshipsofacounty;itisthereforenaturalthattheyshouldbesatisfiedbyacentralauthority。IntheStateofMassachusettsthisauthorityisvestedinthehandsofseveralmagistrates，whoareappointedbytheGovernoroftheState，withtheadvice*gofhiscouncil。*hTheofficersofthecountyhaveonlyalimitedandoccasionalauthority，whichisapplicabletocertainpredeterminedcases。TheStateandthetownshipspossessallthepowerrequisitetoconductpublicbusiness。Thebudgetofthecountyisdrawnupbyitsofficers，andisvotedbythelegislature，butthereisnoassemblywhichdirectlyorindirectlyrepresentsthecounty。Ithas，therefore，properlyspeaking，nopoliticalexistence。
[Footnotef:SeetheActofFebruary14，1821，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。551。]
[Footnoteg:SeetheActofFebruary20，1819，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。ii。p。494。]
[Footnoteh:ThecounciloftheGovernorisanelectivebody。]
AtwofoldtendencymaybediscernedintheAmericanconstitutions，whichimpelsthelegislatortocentralizethelegislativeandtodispersetheexecutivepower。ThetownshipofNewEnglandhasinitselfanindestructibleelementofindependence;andthisdistinctexistencecouldonlybefictitiouslyintroducedintothecounty，whereitsutilityhasnotbeenfelt。Butallthetownshipsunitedhavebutonerepresentation，whichistheState，thecentreofthenationalauthority:beyondtheactionofthetownshipandthatofthenation，nothingcanbesaidtoexistbuttheinfluenceofindividualexertion。
AdministrationInNewEnglandAdministrationnotperceivedinAmerica—Why？—TheEuropeansbelievethatlibertyispromotedbydeprivingthesocialauthorityofsomeofitsrights;theAmericans，bydividingitsexercise—Almostalltheadministrationconfinedtothetownship，anddividedamongstthetown—officers—Notraceofanadministrativebodytobeperceived，eitherinthetownshiporaboveit—Thereasonofthis—HowithappensthattheadministrationoftheStateisuniform—Whoisempoweredtoenforcetheobedienceofthetownshipandthecountytothelaw—
Theintroductionofjudicialpowerintotheadministration—
Consequenceoftheextensionoftheelectiveprincipletoallfunctionaries—TheJusticeofthePeaceinNewEngland—Bywhomappointed—Countyofficer:ensurestheadministrationofthetownships—CourtofSessions—Itsaction—Rightofinspectionandindictmentdisseminatedliketheotheradministrativefunctions—Informersencouragedbythedivisionoffines。
NothingismorestrikingtoanEuropeantravellerintheUnitedStatesthantheabsenceofwhatwetermtheGovernment，ortheAdministration。WrittenlawsexistinAmerica，andoneseesthattheyaredailyexecuted;butalthougheverythingisinmotion，thehandwhichgivestheimpulsetothesocialmachinecannowherebediscovered。Nevertheless，asallpeoplesareobligedtohaverecoursetocertaingrammaticalforms，whicharethefoundationofhumanlanguage，inordertoexpresstheirthoughts;soallcommunitiesareobligedtosecuretheirexistencebysubmittingtoacertaindoseofauthority，withoutwhichtheyfallapreytoanarchy。Thisauthoritymaybedistributedinseveralways，butitmustalwaysexistsomewhere。
Therearetwomethodsofdiminishingtheforceofauthorityinanation:Thefirstistoweakenthesupremepowerinitsveryprinciple，byforbiddingorpreventingsocietyfromactinginitsowndefenceundercertaincircumstances。ToweakenauthorityinthismanneriswhatisgenerallytermedinEuropetolaythefoundationsoffreedom。Thesecondmannerofdiminishingtheinfluenceofauthoritydoesnotconsistinstrippingsocietyofanyofitsrights，norinparalyzingitsefforts，butindistributingtheexerciseofitsprivilegesinvarioushands，andinmultiplyingfunctionaries，toeachofwhomthedegreeofpowernecessaryforhimtoperformhisdutyisentrusted。Theremaybenationswhomthisdistributionofsocialpowersmightleadtoanarchy;butinitselfitisnotanarchical。Theactionofauthorityisindeedthusrenderedlessirresistibleandlessperilous，butitisnottotallysuppressed。
TherevolutionoftheUnitedStateswastheresultofamatureanddignifiedtasteforfreedom，andnotofavagueorill—definedcravingforindependence。Itcontractednoalliancewiththeturbulentpassionsofanarchy;butitscoursewasmarked，onthecontrary，byanattachmenttowhateverwaslawfulandorderly。
ItwasneverassumedintheUnitedStatesthatthecitizenofafreecountryhasarighttodowhateverhepleases;onthecontrary，socialobligationswerethereimposeduponhimmorevariousthananywhereelse。Noideawaseverentertainedofattackingtheprinciplesorofcontestingtherightsofsociety;
buttheexerciseofitsauthoritywasdivided，totheendthattheofficemightbepowerfulandtheofficerinsignificant，andthatthecommunityshouldbeatonceregulatedandfree。InnocountryintheworlddoesthelawholdsoabsolutealanguageasinAmerica，andinnocountryistherightofapplyingitvestedinsomanyhands。TheadministrativepowerintheUnitedStatespresentsnothingeithercentralorhierarchicalinitsconstitution，whichaccountsforitspassing，unperceived。Thepowerexists，butitsrepresentativeisnottobeperceived。
WehavealreadyseenthattheindependenttownshipsofNewEnglandprotecttheirownprivateinterests;andthemunicipalmagistratesarethepersonstowhomtheexecutionofthelawsoftheStateismostfrequentlyentrusted。*iBesidesthegenerallaws，theStatesometimespassesgeneralpoliceregulations;butmorecommonlythetownshipsandtownofficers，conjointlywithjusticesofthepeace，regulatetheminordetailsofsociallife，accordingtothenecessitiesofthedifferentlocalities，andpromulgatesuchenactmentsasconcernthehealthofthecommunity，andthepeaceaswellasmoralityofthecitizens。*jLastly，thesemunicipalmagistratesprovide，oftheirownaccordandwithoutanydelegatedpowers，forthoseunforeseenemergencieswhichfrequentlyoccurinsociety。*k[Footnotei:See\"TheTown—Officer，\"especiallyatthewordsSelectmen，Assessors，Collectors，Schools，SurveyorsofHighways。
Itakeoneexampleinathousand:theStateprohibitstravellingontheSunday;thetything—men，whoaretown—officers，arespeciallychargedtokeepwatchandtoexecutethelaw。SeetheLawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。410。
TheselectmendrawupthelistsofelectorsfortheelectionoftheGovernor，andtransmittheresultoftheballottotheSecretaryoftheState。SeeActofFebruary24，1796:Id。，vol。
i。p。488。]
[Footnotej:Thus，forinstance，theselectmenauthorizetheconstructionofdrains，pointoutthepropersitesforslaughter—
housesandothertradeswhichareanuisancetotheneighborhood。
SeetheActofJune7，1785:Id。，vol。i。p。193。]
[Footnotek:Theselectmentakemeasuresforthesecurityofthepublicincaseofcontagiousdiseases，conjointlywiththejusticesofthepeace。SeeActofJune22，1797，vol。i。p。
539。]
ItresultsfromwhatwehavesaidthatintheStateofMassachusettstheadministrativeauthorityisalmostentirelyrestrictedtothetownship，*lbutthatitisdistributedamongagreatnumberofindividuals。IntheFrenchcommunethereisproperlybutoneofficialfunctionary，namely，theMaire;andinNewEnglandwehaveseenthattherearenineteen。Thesenineteenfunctionariesdonotingeneraldependupononeanother。Thelawcarefullyprescribesacircleofactiontoeachofthesemagistrates;andwithinthatcircletheyhaveanentirerighttoperformtheirfunctionsindependentlyofanyotherauthority。
Abovethetownshipscarcelyanytraceofaseriesofofficialdignitariesistobefound。Itsometimeshappensthatthecountyofficersalteradecisionofthetownshipsortownmagistrates，*mbutingeneraltheauthoritiesofthecountyhavenorighttointerferewiththeauthoritiesofthetownship，*nexceptinsuchmattersasconcernthecounty。
[Footnotel:Isayalmost，fortherearevariouscircumstancesintheannalsofatownshipwhichareregulatedbythejusticeofthepeaceinhisindividualcapacity，orbythejusticesofthepeaceassembledinthechieftownofthecounty;thuslicensesaregrantedbythejustices。SeetheActofFebruary28，1787，vol。i。p。297。]
[Footnotem:Thuslicensesareonlygrantedtosuchpersonsascanproduceacertificateofgoodconductfromtheselectmen。Iftheselectmenrefusetogivethecertificate，thepartymayappealtothejusticesassembledintheCourtofSessions，andtheymaygrantthelicense。SeeActofMarch12，1808，vol。ii。
p。186。
Thetownshipshavetherighttomakeby—laws，andtoenforcethembyfineswhicharefixedbylaw;buttheseby—lawsmustbeapprovedbytheCourtofSessions。SeeActofMarch23，1786，vol。i。p。254。]
[Footnoten:InMassachusettsthecountymagistratesarefrequentlycalledupontoinvestigatetheactsofthetownmagistrates;butitwillbeshownfurtheronthatthisinvestigationisaconsequence，notoftheiradministrative，butoftheirjudicialpower。]
Themagistratesofthetownship，aswellasthoseofthecounty，areboundtocommunicatetheiractstothecentralgovernmentinaverysmallnumberofpredeterminedcases。*oButthecentralgovernmentisnotrepresentedbyanindividualwhosebusinessitistopublishpoliceregulationsandordinancesenforcingtheexecutionofthelaws;tokeepuparegularcommunicationwiththeofficersofthetownshipandthecounty;
toinspecttheirconduct，todirecttheiractions，ortoreprimandtheirfaults。Thereisnopointwhichservesasacentretotheradiioftheadministration。
[Footnoteo:ThetowncommitteesofschoolsareobligedtomakeanannualreporttotheSecretaryoftheStateontheconditionoftheschool。SeeActofMarch10，1827，vol。iii。p。183。]
ChapterV:NecessityOfExaminingTheConditionOfTheStates—
PartII
What，then，istheuniformplanonwhichthegovernmentisconducted，andhowisthecomplianceofthecountiesandtheirmagistratesorthetownshipsandtheirofficersenforced？IntheStatesofNewEnglandthelegislativeauthorityembracesmoresubjectsthanitdoesinFrance;thelegislatorpenetratestotheverycoreoftheadministration;thelawdescendstothemostminutedetails;thesameenactmentprescribestheprincipleandthemethodofitsapplication，andthusimposesamultitudeofstrictandrigorouslydefinedobligationsonthesecondaryfunctionariesoftheState。Theconsequenceofthisisthatifallthesecondaryfunctionariesoftheadministrationconformtothelaw，societyinallitsbranchesproceedswiththegreatestuniformity:thedifficultyremainsofcompellingthesecondaryfunctionariesoftheadministrationtoconformtothelaw。Itmaybeaffirmedthat，ingeneral，societyhasonlytwomethodsofenforcingtheexecutionofthelawsatitsdisposal:adiscretionarypowermaybeentrustedtoasuperiorfunctionaryofdirectingalltheothers，andofcashieringthemincaseofdisobedience;orthecourtsofjusticemaybeauthorizedtoinflictjudicialpenaltiesontheoffender:butthesetwomethodsarenotalwaysavailable。
Therightofdirectingacivilofficerpresupposesthatofcashieringhimifhedoesnotobeyorders，andofrewardinghimbypromotionifhefulfilshisdutieswithpropriety。Butanelectedmagistratecanneitherbecashierednorpromoted。Allelectivefunctionsareinalienableuntiltheirtermisexpired。
Infact，theelectedmagistratehasnothingeithertoexpectortofearfromhisconstituents;andwhenallpublicofficesarefilledbyballottherecanbenoseriesofofficialdignities，becausethedoublerightofcommandingandofenforcingobediencecanneverbevestedinthesameindividual，andbecausethepowerofissuinganordercanneverbejoinedtothatofinflictingapunishmentorbestowingareward。
Thecommunitiesthereforeinwhichthesecondaryfunctionariesofthegovernmentareelectedareperforceobligedtomakegreatuseofjudicialpenaltiesasameansofadministration。Thisisnotevidentatfirstsight;forthoseinpowerareapttolookupontheinstitutionofelectivefunctionariesasoneconcession，andthesubjectionoftheelectedmagistratetothejudgesofthelandasanother。Theyareequallyaversetoboththeseinnovations;andastheyaremorepressinglysolicitedtogranttheformerthanthelatter，theyaccedetotheelectionofthemagistrate，andleavehimindependentofthejudicialpower。Nevertheless，thesecondofthesemeasuresistheonlythingthatcanpossiblycounterbalancethefirst;anditwillbefoundthatanelectiveauthoritywhichisnotsubjecttojudicialpowerwill，soonerorlater，eithereludeallcontrolorbedestroyed。Thecourtsofjusticearetheonlypossiblemediumbetweenthecentralpowerandtheadministrativebodies;theyalonecancompeltheelectedfunctionarytoobey，withoutviolatingtherightsoftheelector。
Theextensionofjudicialpowerinthepoliticalworldoughtthereforetobeintheexactratiooftheextensionofelectiveoffices:ifthesetwoinstitutionsdonotgohandinhand，theStatemustfallintoanarchyorintosubjection。
Ithasalwaysbeenremarkedthathabitsoflegalbusinessdonotrendermenapttotheexerciseofadministrativeauthority。
TheAmericanshaveborrowedfromtheEnglish，theirfathers，theideaofaninstitutionwhichisunknownuponthecontinentofEurope:IalludetothatoftheJusticesofthePeace。TheJusticeofthePeaceisasortofmezzoterminebetweenthemagistrateandthemanoftheworld，betweenthecivilofficerandthejudge。Ajusticeofthepeaceisawell—informedcitizen，thoughheisnotnecessarilyversedintheknowledgeofthelaws。
Hisofficesimplyobligeshimtoexecutethepoliceregulationsofsociety;ataskinwhichgoodsenseandintegrityareofmoreavailthanlegalscience。Thejusticeintroducesintotheadministrationacertaintasteforestablishedformsandpublicity，whichrendershimamostunserviceableinstrumentofdespotism;and，ontheotherhand，heisnotblindedbythosesuperstitionswhichrenderlegalofficersunfitmembersofagovernment。TheAmericanshaveadoptedthesystemoftheEnglishjusticesofthepeace，buttheyhavedepriveditofthataristocraticcharacterwhichisdiscernibleinthemother—country。TheGovernorofMassachusetts*pappointsacertainnumberofjusticesofthepeaceineverycounty，whosefunctionslastsevenyears。*qHefurtherdesignatesthreeindividualsfromamongstthewholebodyofjusticeswhoformineachcountywhatiscalledtheCourtofSessions。Thejusticestakeapersonalshareinpublicbusiness;theyaresometimesentrustedwithadministrativefunctionsinconjunctionwithelectedofficers，*rtheysometimesconstituteatribunal，beforewhichthemagistratessummarilyprosecutearefractorycitizen，orthecitizensinformagainsttheabusesofthemagistrate。ButitisintheCourtofSessionsthattheyexercisetheirmostimportantfunctions。Thiscourtmeetstwiceayearinthecountytown;inMassachusettsitisempoweredtoenforcetheobedienceofthegreaternumber*sofpublicofficers。*tItmustbeobserved，thatintheStateofMassachusettstheCourtofSessionsisatthesametimeanadministrativebody，properlysocalled，andapoliticaltribunal。Ithasbeenassertedthatthecountyisapurelyadministrativedivision。TheCourtofSessionspresidesoverthatsmallnumberofaffairswhich，astheyconcernseveraltownships，orallthetownshipsofthecountyincommon，cannotbeentrustedtoanyoneoftheminparticular。*uInallthatconcernscountybusinessthedutiesoftheCourtofSessionsarepurelyadministrative;andifinitsinvestigationsitoccasionallyborrowstheformsofjudicialprocedure，itisonlywithaviewtoitsowninformation，*vorasaguaranteetothecommunityoverwhichitpresides。Butwhentheadministrationofthetownshipisbroughtbeforeit，italwaysactsasajudicialbody，andinsomefewcasesasanofficialassembly。
[Footnotep:WeshallhereafterlearnwhataGovernoris:IshallcontentmyselfwithremarkinginthisplacethatherepresentstheexecutivepowerofthewholeState。]
[Footnoteq:SeetheConstitutionofMassachusetts，chap。II。
sect。1。Section9;chap。III。Section3。]
[Footnoter:Thus，forexample，astrangerarrivesinatownshipfromacountrywhereacontagiousdiseaseprevails，andhefallsill。Twojusticesofthepeacecan，withtheassentoftheselectmen，orderthesheriffofthecountytoremoveandtakecareofhim。—ActofJune22，1797，vol。i。p。540。
Ingeneralthejusticesinterfereinalltheimportantactsoftheadministration，andgivethemasemi—judicialcharacter。]
[Footnotes:Isaythegreaternumber，becausecertainadministrativemisdemeanorsarebroughtbeforeordinarytribunals。If，forinstance，atownshiprefusestomakethenecessaryexpenditureforitsschoolsortonameaschool—committee，itisliabletoaheavyfine。ButthispenaltyispronouncedbytheSupremeJudicialCourtortheCourtofCommonPleas。SeeActofMarch10，1827，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。iii。p。190。Orwhenatownshipneglectstoprovidethenecessarywar—stores。—ActofFebruary21，1822:Id。，vol。ii。
p。570。]
[Footnotet:Intheirindividualcapacitythejusticesofthepeacetakeapartinthebusinessofthecountiesandtownships。]
[Footnoteu:Theseaffairsmaybebroughtunderthefollowingheads:—1。Theerectionofprisonsandcourtsofjustice。2。
Thecountybudget，whichisafterwardsvotedbytheState。3。
Thedistributionofthetaxessovoted。4。Grantsofcertainpatents。5。Thelayingdownandrepairsofthecountryroads。]
[Footnotev:Thus，whenaroadisunderconsideration，almostalldifficultiesaredisposedofbytheaidofthejury。]
ThefirstdifficultyistoprocuretheobedienceofanauthorityasentirelyindependentofthegenerallawsoftheStateasthetownshipis。Wehavestatedthatassessorsareannuallynamedbythetown—meetingstolevythetaxes。Ifatownshipattemptstoevadethepaymentofthetaxesbyneglectingtonameitsassessors，theCourtofSessionscondemnsittoaheavypenalty。*wThefineisleviedoneachoftheinhabitants;
andthesheriffofthecounty，whoistheofficerofjustice，executesthemandate。ThusitisthatintheUnitedStatestheauthorityoftheGovernmentismysteriouslyconcealedundertheformsofajudicialsentence;anditsinfluenceisatthesametimefortifiedbythatirresistiblepowerwithwhichmenhaveinvestedtheformalitiesoflaw。
[Footnotew:SeeActofFebruary20，1786，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。217。]
Theseproceedingsareeasytofollowandtounderstand。Thedemandsmadeuponatownshipareingeneralplainandaccuratelydefined;theyconsistinasimplefactwithoutanycomplication，orinaprinciplewithoutitsapplicationindetail。*xButthedifficultyincreaseswhenitisnottheobedienceofthetownship，butthatofthetownofficerswhichistobeenforced。
Allthereprehensibleactionsofwhichapublicfunctionarymaybeguiltyarereducibletothefollowingheads:
[Footnotex:Thereisanindirectmethodofenforcingtheobedienceofatownship。Supposethatthefundswhichthelawdemandsforthemaintenanceoftheroadshavenotbeenvoted，thetownsurveyoristhenauthorized，exofficio，tolevythesupplies。Asheispersonallyresponsibletoprivateindividualsforthestateoftheroads，andindictablebeforetheCourtofSessions，heissuretoemploytheextraordinaryrightwhichthelawgiveshimagainstthetownship。ThusbythreateningtheofficertheCourtofSessionsexactscompliancefromthetown。
SeeActofMarch5，1787，Id。，vol。i。p。305。]
Hemayexecutethelawwithoutenergyorzeal;
Hemayneglecttoexecutethelaw;
Hemaydowhatthelawenjoinshimnottodo。
Thelasttwoviolationsofdutycanalonecomeunderthecognizanceofatribunal;apositiveandappreciablefactistheindispensablefoundationofanactionatlaw。Thus，iftheselectmenomittofulfilthelegalformalitiesusualattownelections，theymaybecondemnedtopayafine;*ybutwhenthepublicofficerperformshisdutywithoutability，andwhenheobeystheletterofthelawwithoutzealorenergy，heisatleastbeyondthereachofjudicialinterference。TheCourtofSessions，evenwhenitisinvestedwithitsofficialpowers，isinthiscaseunabletocompelhimtoamoresatisfactoryobedience。Thefearofremovalistheonlychecktothesequasi—offences;andastheCourtofSessionsdoesnotoriginatethetownauthorities，itcannotremovefunctionarieswhomitdoesnotappoint。Moreover，aperpetualinvestigationwouldbenecessarytoconvicttheofficerofnegligenceorlukewarmness;
andtheCourtofSessionssitsbuttwiceayearandthenonlyjudgessuchoffencesasarebroughtbeforeitsnotice。Theonlysecurityofthatactiveandenlightenedobediencewhichacourtofjusticecannotimposeuponpublicofficersliesinthepossibilityoftheirarbitraryremoval。InFrancethissecurityissoughtforinpowersexercisedbytheheadsoftheadministration;inAmericaitissoughtforintheprincipleofelection。
[Footnotey:LawsofMassachusetts，vol。ii。p。45。]
Thus，torecapitulateinafewwordswhatIhavebeenshowing:IfapublicofficerinNewEnglandcommitsacrimeintheexerciseofhisfunctions，theordinarycourtsofjusticearealwayscalledupontopasssentenceuponhim。Ifhecommitsafaultinhisofficialcapacity，apurelyadministrativetribunalisempoweredtopunishhim;and，iftheaffairisimportantorurgent，thejudgesuppliestheomissionofthefunctionary。*zLastly，ifthesameindividualisguiltyofoneofthoseintangibleoffencesofwhichhumanjusticehasnocognizance，heannuallyappearsbeforeatribunalfromwhichthereisnoappeal，whichcanatoncereducehimtoinsignificanceanddeprivehimofhischarge。Thissystemundoubtedlypossessesgreatadvantages，butitsexecutionisattendedwithapracticaldifficultywhichitisimportanttopointout。
[Footnotez:If，forinstance，atownshippersistsinrefusingtonameitsassessors，theCourtofSessionsnominatesthem;andthemagistratesthusappointedareinvestedwiththesameauthorityaselectedofficers。SeetheActquotedabove，February20，1787。]
Ihavealreadyobservedthattheadministrativetribunal，whichiscalledtheCourtofSessions，hasnorightofinspectionoverthetownofficers。Itcanonlyinterferewhentheconductofamagistrateisspeciallybroughtunderitsnotice;andthisisthedelicatepartofthesystem。TheAmericansofNewEnglandareunacquaintedwiththeofficeofpublicprosecutorintheCourtofSessions，*aanditmayreadilybeperceivedthatitcouldnothavebeenestablishedwithoutdifficulty。Ifanaccusingmagistratehadmerelybeenappointedinthechieftownofeachcounty，andifhehadbeenunassistedbyagentsinthetownships，hewouldnothavebeenbetteracquaintedwithwhatwasgoingoninthecountythanthemembersoftheCourtofSessions。