WefindasentencebearingdatethefirstofMay，1660，inflictingafineandreprimandonayoungwomanwhowasaccusedofusingimproperlanguage，andofallowingherselftobekissed。
*tTheCodeof1650aboundsinpreventivemeasures。Itpunishesidlenessanddrunkennesswithseverity。*uInnkeepersareforbiddentofurnishmorethanacertainquantityofliquortoeachconsumer;andsimplelying，wheneveritmaybeinjurious，*vischeckedbyafineoraflogging。Inotherplaces，thelegislator，entirelyforgettingthegreatprinciplesofreligioustolerationwhichhehadhimselfupheldinEurope，rendersattendanceondivineservicecompulsory，*wandgoessofarastovisitwithseverepunishment，**andevenwithdeath，theChristianswhochosetoworshipGodaccordingtoaritualdifferingfromhisown。*xSometimesindeedthezealofhisenactmentsinduceshimtodescendtothemostfrivolousparticulars:thusalawistobefoundinthesameCodewhichprohibitstheuseoftobacco。*yItmustnotbeforgottenthatthesefantasticalandvexatiouslawswerenotimposedbyauthority，butthattheywerefreelyvotedbyallthepersonsinterested，andthatthemannersofthecommunitywereevenmoreaustereandmorepuritanicalthanthelaws。In1649asolemnassociationwasformedinBostontochecktheworldlyluxuryoflonghair。*z[Footnotes:Codeof1650，p。48。Itseemssometimestohavehappenedthatthejudgessuperaddedthesepunishmentstoeachother，asisseeninasentencepronouncedin1643（p。114，\"NewHavenAntiquities\"），bywhichMargaretBedford，convictedoflooseconduct，wascondemnedtobewhipped，andafterwardstomarryNicholasJemmings，heraccomplice。]
[Footnotet:\"NewHavenAntiquities，\"p。104。Seealso\"Hutchinson’sHistory，\"forseveralcausesequallyextraordinary。]
[Footnoteu:Codeof1650，pp。50，57。]
[Footnotev:Ibid。，p。64。]
[Footnotew:Ibid。，p。44。]
[Footnote*:ThiswasnotpeculiartoConnecticut。See，forinstance，thelawwhich，onSeptember13，1644，banishedtheAnabaptistsfromtheStateofMassachusetts。（\"HistoricalCollectionofStatePapers，\"vol。i。p。538。）SeealsothelawagainsttheQuakers，passedonOctober14，1656:\"Whereas，\"saysthepreamble，\"anaccursedraceofhereticscalledQuakershassprungup，\"etc。TheclausesofthestatuteinflictaheavyfineonallcaptainsofshipswhoshouldimportQuakersintothecountry。TheQuakerswhomaybefoundthereshallbewhippedandimprisonedwithhardlabor。Thosemembersofthesectwhoshoulddefendtheiropinionsshallbefirstfined，thenimprisoned，andfinallydrivenoutoftheprovince。—\"HistoricalCollectionofStatePapers，\"vol。i。p。630。]
[Footnotex:BythepenallawofMassachusetts，anyCatholicpriestwhoshouldsetfootinthecolonyafterhavingbeenoncedrivenoutofitwasliabletocapitalpunishment。]
[Footnotey:Codeof1650，p。96。]
[Footnotez:\"NewEngland’sMemorial，\"p。316。SeeAppendix，E。]
Theseerrorsarenodoubtdiscreditabletohumanreason;
theyattesttheinferiorityofournature，whichisincapableoflayingfirmholduponwhatistrueandjust，andisoftenreducedtothealternativeoftwoexcesses。Instrictconnectionwiththispenallegislation，whichbearssuchstrikingmarksofanarrowsectarianspirit，andofthosereligiouspassionswhichhadbeenwarmedbypersecutionandwerestillfermentingamongthepeople，abodyofpoliticallawsistobefound，which，thoughwrittentwohundredyearsago，isstillaheadofthelibertiesofourage。Thegeneralprincipleswhicharethegroundworkofmodernconstitutions—principleswhichwereimperfectlyknowninEurope，andnotcompletelytriumphanteveninGreatBritain，intheseventeenthcentury—wereallrecognizedanddeterminedbythelawsofNewEngland:theinterventionofthepeopleinpublicaffairs，thefreevotingoftaxes，theresponsibilityofauthorities，personalliberty，andtrialbyjury，wereallpositivelyestablishedwithoutdiscussion。FromthesefruitfulprinciplesconsequenceshavebeenderivedandapplicationshavebeenmadesuchasnonationinEuropehasyetventuredtoattempt。
InConnecticuttheelectoralbodyconsisted，fromitsorigin，ofthewholenumberofcitizens;andthisisreadilytobeunderstood，*awhenwerecollectthatthispeopleenjoyedanalmostperfectequalityoffortune，andastillgreateruniformityofopinions。*bInConnecticut，atthisperiod，alltheexecutivefunctionarieswereelected，includingtheGovernoroftheState。*cThecitizensabovetheageofsixteenwereobligedtobeararms;theyformedanationalmilitia，whichappointeditsownofficers，andwastoholditselfatalltimesinreadinesstomarchforthedefenceofthecountry。*d[Footnotea:Constitutionof1638，p。17。]
[Footnoteb:In1641theGeneralAssemblyofRhodeIslandunanimouslydeclaredthatthegovernmentoftheStatewasademocracy，andthatthepowerwasvestedinthebodyoffreecitizens，whoalonehadtherighttomakethelawsandtowatchtheirexecution。—Codeof1650，p。70。]
[Footnotec:\"Pitkin’sHistory，\"p。47。]
[Footnoted:Constitutionof1638，p。12。]
InthelawsofConnecticut，aswellasinallthoseofNewEngland，wefindthegermandgradualdevelopmentofthattownshipindependencewhichisthelifeandmainspringofAmericanlibertyatthepresentday。ThepoliticalexistenceofthemajorityofthenationsofEuropecommencedinthesuperiorranksofsociety，andwasgraduallyandimperfectlycommunicatedtothedifferentmembersofthesocialbody。InAmerica，ontheotherhand，itmaybesaidthatthetownshipwasorganizedbeforethecounty，thecountybeforetheState，theStatebeforetheUnion。InNewEnglandtownshipswerecompletelyanddefinitivelyconstitutedasearlyas1650。Theindependenceofthetownshipwasthenucleusroundwhichthelocalinterests，passions，rights，anddutiescollectedandclung。Itgavescopetotheactivityofarealpoliticallifemostthoroughlydemocraticandrepublican。Thecoloniesstillrecognizedthesupremacyofthemother—country;monarchywasstillthelawoftheState;buttherepublicwasalreadyestablishedineverytownship。Thetownsnamedtheirownmagistratesofeverykind，ratedthemselves，andleviedtheirowntaxes。*eIntheparishofNewEnglandthelawofrepresentationwasnotadopted，buttheaffairsofthecommunitywerediscussed，asatAthens，inthemarket—place，byageneralassemblyofthecitizens。
[Footnotee:Codeof1650，p。80。]
InstudyingthelawswhichwerepromulgatedatthisfirsteraoftheAmericanrepublics，itisimpossiblenottobestruckbytheremarkableacquaintancewiththescienceofgovernmentandtheadvancedtheoryoflegislationwhichtheydisplay。TheideasthereformedofthedutiesofsocietytowardsitsmembersareevidentlymuchloftierandmorecomprehensivethanthoseoftheEuropeanlegislatorsatthattime:obligationswerethereimposedwhichwereelsewhereslighted。IntheStatesofNewEngland，fromthefirst，theconditionofthepoorwasprovidedfor;*fstrictmeasuresweretakenforthemaintenanceofroads，andsurveyorswereappointedtoattendtothem;*gregisterswereestablishedineveryparish，inwhichtheresultsofpublicdeliberations，andthebirths，deaths，andmarriagesofthecitizenswereentered;*hclerksweredirectedtokeeptheseregisters;*iofficerswerechargedwiththeadministrationofvacantinheritances，andwiththearbitrationoflitigatedlandmarks;andmanyotherswerecreatedwhosechieffunctionswerethemaintenanceofpublicorderinthecommunity。*jThelawentersintoathousandusefulprovisionsforanumberofsocialwantswhichareatpresentveryinadequatelyfeltinFrance。
[Footnotef:Ibid。，p。78。]
[Footnoteg:Ibid。，p。49。]
[Footnoteh:See\"Hutchinson’sHistory，\"vol。i。p。455。]
[Footnotei:Codeof1650，p。86。]
[Footnotej:Ibid。，p。40。]
ButitisbytheattentionitpaystoPublicEducationthattheoriginalcharacterofAmericancivilizationisatonceplacedintheclearestlight。\"Itbeing，\"saysthelaw，\"onechiefprojectofSatantokeepmenfromtheknowledgeoftheScripturebypersuadingfromtheuseoftongues，totheendthatlearningmaynotbeburiedinthegravesofourforefathers，inchurchandcommonwealth，theLordassistingourendeavors……\"*kHerefollowclausesestablishingschoolsineverytownship，andobligingtheinhabitants，underpainofheavyfines，tosupportthem。Schoolsofasuperiorkindwerefoundedinthesamemannerinthemorepopulousdistricts。Themunicipalauthoritieswereboundtoenforcethesendingofchildrentoschoolbytheirparents;theywereempoweredtoinflictfinesuponallwhorefusedcompliance;andincaseofcontinuedresistancesocietyassumedtheplaceoftheparent，tookpossessionofthechild，anddeprivedthefatherofthosenaturalrightswhichheusedtosobadapurpose。Thereaderwillundoubtedlyhaveremarkedthepreambleoftheseenactments:inAmericareligionistheroadtoknowledge，andtheobservanceofthedivinelawsleadsmantocivilfreedom。
[Footnotek:Ibid。，p。90。]
If，afterhavingcastarapidglanceoverthestateofAmericansocietyin1650，weturntotheconditionofEurope，andmoreespeciallytothatoftheContinent，atthesameperiod，wecannotfailtobestruckwithastonishment。OntheContinentofEurope，atthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury，absolutemonarchyhadeverywheretriumphedovertheruinsoftheoligarchicalandfeudallibertiesoftheMiddleAges。NeverwerethenotionsofrightmorecompletelyconfoundedthaninthemidstofthesplendorandliteratureofEurope;neverwastherelesspoliticalactivityamongthepeople;neverweretheprinciplesoftruefreedomlesswidelycirculated;andatthatverytimethoseprinciples，whichwerescornedorunknownbythenationsofEurope，wereproclaimedinthedesertsoftheNewWorld，andwereacceptedasthefuturecreedofagreatpeople。Theboldesttheoriesofthehumanreasonwereputintopracticebyacommunitysohumblethatnotastatesmancondescendedtoattendtoit;andalegislationwithoutaprecedentwasproducedoffhandbytheimaginationofthecitizens。Inthebosomofthisobscuredemocracy，whichhadasyetbroughtforthneithergenerals，norphilosophers，norauthors，amanmightstandupinthefaceofafreepeopleandpronouncethefollowingfinedefinitionofliberty。*l[Footnotel:Mather’s\"MagnaliaChristiAmericana，\"vol。ii。p。
13。ThisspeechwasmadebyWinthrop;hewasaccusedofhavingcommittedarbitraryactionsduringhismagistracy，butafterhavingmadethespeechofwhichtheaboveisafragment，hewasacquittedbyacclamation，andfromthattimeforwardshewasalwaysre—electedgovernoroftheState。SeeMarshal，vol。i。
p。166。]
\"NorwouldIhaveyoutomistakeinthepointofyourownliberty。Thereisalibertyofacorruptnaturewhichiseffectedbothbymenandbeaststodowhattheylist，andthislibertyisinconsistentwithauthority，impatientofallrestraint;bythisliberty’sumusomnesdeteriores’:’tisthegrandenemyoftruthandpeace，andalltheordinancesofGodarebentagainstit。Butthereisacivil，amoral，afederallibertywhichistheproperendandobjectofauthority;itisalibertyforthatonlywhichisjustandgood:forthislibertyyouaretostandwiththehazardofyourverylivesandwhatsoevercrossesitisnotauthority，butadistemperthereof。Thislibertyismaintainedinawayofsubjectiontoauthority;andtheauthoritysetoveryouwill，inalladministrationsforyourgood，bequietlysubmitteduntobyallbutsuchashaveadispositiontoshakeofftheyokeandlosetheirtrueliberty，bytheirmurmuringatthehonorandpowerofauthority。\"
TheremarksIhavemadewillsufficetodisplaythecharacterofAnglo—Americancivilizationinitstruelight。Itistheresult（andthisshouldbeconstantlypresenttothemindoftwodistinctelements，whichinotherplaceshavebeeninfrequenthostility，butwhichinAmericahavebeenadmirablyincorporatedandcombinedwithoneanother。IalludetothespiritofReligionandthespiritofLiberty。
ThesettlersofNewEnglandwereatthesametimeardentsectariansanddaringinnovators。Narrowasthelimitsofsomeoftheirreligiousopinionswere，theywereentirelyfreefrompoliticalprejudices。Hencearosetwotendencies，distinctbutnotopposite，whichareconstantlydiscernibleinthemannersaswellasinthelawsofthecountry。
Itmightbeimaginedthatmenwhosacrificedtheirfriends，theirfamily，andtheirnativelandtoareligiousconvictionwereabsorbedinthepursuitoftheintellectualadvantageswhichtheypurchasedatsodeararate。Theenergy，however，withwhichtheystrovefortheacquirementofwealth，moralenjoyment，andthecomfortsaswellaslibertiesoftheworld，isscarcelyinferiortothatwithwhichtheydevotedthemselvestoHeaven。
Politicalprinciplesandallhumanlawsandinstitutionsweremouldedandalteredattheirpleasure;thebarriersofthesocietyinwhichtheywerebornwerebrokendownbeforethem;theoldprincipleswhichhadgovernedtheworldforageswerenomore;apathwithoutaturnandafieldwithoutanhorizonwereopenedtotheexploringandardentcuriosityofman:butatthelimitsofthepoliticalworldhecheckshisresearches，hediscreetlylaysasidetheuseofhismostformidablefaculties，henolongerconsentstodoubtortoinnovate，butcarefullyabstainingfromraisingthecurtainofthesanctuary，heyieldswithsubmissiverespecttotruthswhichhewillnotdiscuss。
Thus，inthemoralworldeverythingisclassed，adapted，decided，andforeseen;inthepoliticalworldeverythingisagitated，uncertain，anddisputed:intheoneisapassive，thoughavoluntary，obedience;intheotheranindependencescornfulofexperienceandjealousofauthority。
Thesetwotendencies，apparentlysodiscrepant，arefarfromconflicting;theyadvancetogether，andmutuallysupporteachother。Religionperceivesthatcivillibertyaffordsanobleexercisetothefacultiesofman，andthatthepoliticalworldisafieldpreparedbytheCreatorfortheeffortsoftheintelligence。Contentedwiththefreedomandthepowerwhichitenjoysinitsownsphere，andwiththeplacewhichitoccupies，theempireofreligionisnevermoresurelyestablishedthanwhenitreignsintheheartsofmenunsupportedbyaughtbesideitsnativestrength。Religionisnolessthecompanionoflibertyinallitsbattlesanditstriumphs;thecradleofitsinfancy，andthedivinesourceofitsclaims。Thesafeguardofmoralityisreligion，andmoralityisthebestsecurityoflawandthesurestpledgeoffreedom。*m[Footnotem:SeeAppendix，F。]
ReasonsOfCertainAnomaliesWhichTheLawsAndCustomsOfTheAnglo—AmericansPresentRemainsofaristocraticinstitutionsinthemidstofacompletedemocracy—Why？—DistinctioncarefullytobedrawnbetweenwhatisofPuritanicalandwhatisofEnglishorigin。
Thereaderiscautionednottodrawtoogeneralortooabsoluteaninferencefromwhathasbeensaid。Thesocialcondition，thereligion，andthemannersofthefirstemigrantsundoubtedlyexercisedanimmenseinfluenceonthedestinyoftheirnewcountry。Neverthelesstheywerenotinasituationtofoundastateofthingssolelydependentonthemselves:nomancanentirelyshakeofftheinfluenceofthepast，andthesettlers，intentionallyorinvoluntarily，mingledhabitsandnotionsderivedfromtheireducationandfromthetraditionsoftheircountrywiththosehabitsandnotionswhichwereexclusivelytheirown。ToformajudgmentontheAnglo—AmericansofthepresentdayitisthereforenecessarytodistinguishwhatisofPuritanicalandwhatisofEnglishorigin。
LawsandcustomsarefrequentlytobemetwithintheUnitedStateswhichcontraststronglywithallthatsurroundsthem。
TheselawsseemtobedrawnupinaspiritcontrarytotheprevailingtenoroftheAmericanlegislation;andthesecustomsarenolessopposedtothetoneofsociety。IftheEnglishcolonieshadbeenfoundedinanageofdarkness，oriftheiroriginwasalreadylostinthelapseofyears，theproblemwouldbeinsoluble。
IshallquoteasingleexampletoillustratewhatIadvance。
ThecivilandcriminalprocedureoftheAmericanshasonlytwomeansofaction—committalandbail。Thefirstmeasuretakenbythemagistrateistoexactsecurityfromthedefendant，or，incaseofrefusal，toincarceratehim:thegroundoftheaccusationandtheimportanceofthechargesagainsthimarethendiscussed。
Itisevidentthatalegislationofthiskindishostiletothepoorman，andfavorableonlytotherich。Thepoormanhasnotalwaysasecuritytoproduce，eveninacivilcause;andifheisobligedtowaitforjusticeinprison，heisspeedilyreducedtodistress。Thewealthyindividual，onthecontrary，alwaysescapesimprisonmentincivilcauses;nay，more，hemayreadilyeludethepunishmentwhichawaitshimforadelinquencybybreakinghisbail。Sothatallthepenaltiesofthelaware，forhim，reducibletofines。*nNothingcanbemorearistocraticthanthissystemoflegislation。YetinAmericaitisthepoorwhomakethelaw，andtheyusuallyreservethegreatestsocialadvantagestothemselves。TheexplanationofthephenomenonistobefoundinEngland;thelawsofwhichIspeakareEnglish，*oandtheAmericanshaveretainedthem，howeverrepugnanttheymaybetothetenoroftheirlegislationandthemassoftheirideas。
Nexttoitshabits，thethingwhichanationisleastapttochangeisitscivillegislation。Civillawsareonlyfamiliarlyknowntolegalmen，whosedirectinterestitistomaintainthemastheyare，whethergoodorbad，simplybecausetheythemselvesareconversantwiththem。Thebodyofthenationisscarcelyacquaintedwiththem;itmerelyperceivestheiractioninparticularcases;butithassomedifficultyinseizingtheirtendency，andobeysthemwithoutpremeditation。Ihavequotedoneinstancewhereitwouldhavebeeneasytoadduceagreatnumberofothers。ThesurfaceofAmericansocietyis，ifImayusetheexpression，coveredwithalayerofdemocracy，frombeneathwhichtheoldaristocraticcolorssometimespeep。
[Footnoten:Crimesnodoubtexistforwhichbailisinadmissible，buttheyarefewinnumber。]
[Footnoteo:SeeBlackstone;andDelolme，bookIchap。x。]
ChapterIII:SocialConditionsOfTheAnglo—AmericansChapterSummaryASocialconditioniscommonlytheresultofcircumstances，sometimesoflaws，oftenerstillofthesetwocausesunited;butwhereveritexists，itmayjustlybeconsideredasthesourceofalmostallthelaws，theusages，andtheideaswhichregulatetheconductofnations;whateveritdoesnotproduceitmodifies。Itisthereforenecessary，ifwewouldbecomeacquaintedwiththelegislationandthemannersofanation，tobeginbythestudyofitssocialcondition。
TheStrikingCharacteristicOfTheSocialConditionOfTheAnglo—
AmericansInItsEssentialDemocracyThefirstemigrantsofNewEngland—Theirequality—
AristocraticlawsintroducedintheSouth—PeriodoftheRevolution—Changeinthelawofdescent—Effectsproducedbythischange—DemocracycarriedtoitsutmostlimitsinthenewStatesoftheWest—Equalityofeducation。
ManyimportantobservationssuggestthemselvesuponthesocialconditionoftheAnglo—Americans，butthereisonewhichtakesprecedenceofalltherest。ThesocialconditionoftheAmericansiseminentlydemocratic;thiswasitscharacteratthefoundationoftheColonies，andisstillmorestronglymarkedatthepresentday。IhavestatedintheprecedingchapterthatgreatequalityexistedamongtheemigrantswhosettledontheshoresofNewEngland。ThegermofaristocracywasneverplantedinthatpartoftheUnion。Theonlyinfluencewhichobtainedtherewasthatofintellect;thepeoplewereusedtoreverencecertainnamesastheemblemsofknowledgeandvirtue。Someoftheirfellow—citizensacquiredapowerovertherestwhichmighttrulyhavebeencalledaristocratic，ifithadbeencapableoftransmissionfromfathertoson。
ThiswasthestateofthingstotheeastoftheHudson:tothesouth—westofthatriver，andinthedirectionoftheFloridas，thecasewasdifferent。InmostoftheStatessituatedtothesouth—westoftheHudsonsomegreatEnglishproprietorshadsettled，whohadimportedwiththemaristocraticprinciplesandtheEnglishlawofdescent。IhaveexplainedthereasonswhyitwasimpossibleevertoestablishapowerfularistocracyinAmerica;thesereasonsexistedwithlessforcetothesouth—westoftheHudson。IntheSouth，oneman，aidedbyslaves，couldcultivateagreatextentofcountry:itwasthereforecommontoseerichlandedproprietors。ButtheirinfluencewasnotaltogetheraristocraticasthattermisunderstoodinEurope，sincetheypossessednoprivileges;andthecultivationoftheirestatesbeingcarriedonbyslaves，theyhadnotenantsdependingonthem，andconsequentlynopatronage。Still，thegreatproprietorssouthoftheHudsonconstitutedasuperiorclass，havingideasandtastesofitsown，andformingthecentreofpoliticalaction。Thiskindofaristocracysympathizedwiththebodyofthepeople，whosepassionsandinterestsiteasilyembraced;butitwastooweakandtooshort—livedtoexciteeitherloveorhatredforitself。ThiswastheclasswhichheadedtheinsurrectionintheSouth，andfurnishedthebestleadersoftheAmericanrevolution。
Attheperiodofwhichwearenowspeakingsocietywasshakentoitscentre:thepeople，inwhosenamethestrugglehadtakenplace，conceivedthedesireofexercisingtheauthoritywhichithadacquired;itsdemocratictendencieswereawakened;
andhavingthrownofftheyokeofthemother—country，itaspiredtoindependenceofeverykind。Theinfluenceofindividualsgraduallyceasedtobefelt，andcustomandlawunitedtogethertoproducethesameresult。
Butthelawofdescentwasthelaststeptoequality。Iamsurprisedthatancientandmodernjuristshavenotattributedtothislawagreaterinfluenceonhumanaffairs。*aItistruethattheselawsbelongtocivilaffairs;buttheyoughtneverthelesstobeplacedattheheadofallpoliticalinstitutions;for，whilstpoliticallawsareonlythesymbolofanation’scondition，theyexerciseanincredibleinfluenceuponitssocialstate。Theyhave，moreover，asureanduniformmannerofoperatinguponsociety，affecting，asitwere，generationsyetunborn。
[Footnotea:Iunderstandbythelawofdescentallthoselawswhoseprincipalobjectistoregulatethedistributionofpropertyafterthedeathofitsowner。Thelawofentailisofthisnumber;itcertainlypreventstheownerfromdisposingofhispossessionsbeforehisdeath;butthisissolelywiththeviewofpreservingthementirefortheheir。Theprincipalobject，therefore，ofthelawofentailistoregulatethedescentofpropertyafterthedeathofitsowner:itsotherprovisionsaremerelymeanstothisend。]
Throughtheirmeansmanacquiresakindofpreternaturalpoweroverthefuturelotofhisfellow—creatures。Whenthelegislatorhasregulatedthelawofinheritance，hemayrestfromhislabor。Themachineonceputinmotionwillgoonforages，andadvance，asifself—guided，towardsagivenpoint。Whenframedinaparticularmanner，thislawunites，drawstogether，andvestspropertyandpowerinafewhands:itstendencyisclearlyaristocratic。Onoppositeprinciplesitsactionisstillmorerapid;itdivides，distributes，anddispersesbothpropertyandpower。Alarmedbytherapidityofitsprogress，thosewhodespairofarrestingitsmotionendeavortoobstructitbydifficultiesandimpediments;theyvainlyseektocounteractitseffectbycontraryefforts;butitgraduallyreducesordestroyseveryobstacle，untilbyitsincessantactivitythebulwarksoftheinfluenceofwealtharegrounddowntothefineandshiftingsandwhichisthebasisofdemocracy。Whenthelawofinheritancepermits，stillmorewhenitdecrees，theequaldivisionofafather’spropertyamongstallhischildren，itseffectsareoftwokinds:itisimportanttodistinguishthemfromeachother，althoughtheytendtothesameend。
Invirtueofthelawofpartibleinheritance，thedeathofeveryproprietorbringsaboutakindofrevolutioninproperty;
notonlydohispossessionschangehands，buttheirverynatureisaltered，sincetheyareparcelledintoshares，whichbecomesmallerandsmallerateachdivision。Thisisthedirectand，asitwere，thephysicaleffectofthelaw。Itfollows，then，thatincountrieswhereequalityofinheritanceisestablishedbylaw，property，andespeciallylandedproperty，musthaveatendencytoperpetualdiminution。Theeffects，however，ofsuchlegislationwouldonlybeperceptibleafteralapseoftime，ifthelawwasabandonedtoitsownworking;forsupposingthefamilytoconsistoftwochildren（andinacountrypeopleasFranceistheaveragenumberisnotabovethree），thesechildren，sharingamongstthemthefortuneofbothparents，wouldnotbepoorerthantheirfatherormother。
Butthelawofequaldivisionexercisesitsinfluencenotmerelyuponthepropertyitself，butitaffectsthemindsoftheheirs，andbringstheirpassionsintoplay。Theseindirectconsequencestendpowerfullytothedestructionoflargefortunes，andespeciallyoflargedomains。Amongnationswhoselawofdescentisfoundedupontherightofprimogeniturelandedestatesoftenpassfromgenerationtogenerationwithoutundergoingdivision，theconsequenceofwhichisthatfamilyfeelingistoacertaindegreeincorporatedwiththeestate。Thefamilyrepresentstheestate，theestatethefamily;whosename，togetherwithitsorigin，itsglory，itspower，anditsvirtues，isthusperpetuatedinanimperishablememorialofthepastandasurepledgeofthefuture。
Whentheequalpartitionofpropertyisestablishedbylaw，theintimateconnectionisdestroyedbetweenfamilyfeelingandthepreservationofthepaternalestate;thepropertyceasestorepresentthefamily;forasitmustinevitablybedividedafteroneortwogenerations，ithasevidentlyaconstanttendencytodiminish，andmustintheendbecompletelydispersed。Thesonsofthegreatlandedproprietor，iftheyarefewinnumber，oriffortunebefriendsthem，mayindeedentertainthehopeofbeingaswealthyastheirfather，butnotthatofpossessingthesamepropertyashedid;therichesmustnecessarilybecomposedofelementsdifferentfromhis。
Now，fromthemomentthatyoudivestthelandownerofthatinterestinthepreservationofhisestatewhichhederivesfromassociation，fromtradition，andfromfamilypride，youmaybecertainthatsoonerorlaterhewilldisposeofit;forthereisastrongpecuniaryinterestinfavorofselling，asfloatingcapitalproduceshigherinterestthanrealproperty，andismorereadilyavailabletogratifythepassionsofthemoment。
Greatlandedestateswhichhaveoncebeendividednevercometogetheragain;forthesmallproprietordrawsfromhislandabetterrevenue，inproportion，thanthelargeownerdoesfromhis，andofcoursehesellsitatahigherrate。*bThecalculationsofgain，therefore，whichdecidetherichmantosellhisdomainwillstillmorepowerfullyinfluencehimagainstbuyingsmallestatestounitethemintoalargeone。
[Footnoteb:Idonotmeantosaythatthesmallproprietorcultivateshislandbetter，buthecultivatesitwithmoreardorandcare;sothathemakesupbyhislaborforhiswantofskill。]
Whatiscalledfamilyprideisoftenfoundeduponanillusionofself—love。Amanwishestoperpetuateandimmortalizehimself，asitwere，inhisgreat—grandchildren。
Wheretheespritdefamilleceasestoactindividualselfishnesscomesintoplay。Whentheideaoffamilybecomesvague，indeterminate，anduncertain，amanthinksofhispresentconvenience;heprovidesfortheestablishmentofhissucceedinggeneration，andnomore。Eitheramangivesuptheideaofperpetuatinghisfamily，oratanyrateheseekstoaccomplishitbyothermeansthanthatofalandedestate。Thusnotonlydoesthelawofpartibleinheritancerenderitdifficultforfamiliestopreservetheirancestraldomainsentire，butitdeprivesthemoftheinclinationtoattemptit，andcompelstheminsomemeasuretoco—operatewiththelawintheirownextinction。
Thelawofequaldistributionproceedsbytwomethods:byactinguponthings，itactsuponpersons;byinfluencingpersons，itaffectsthings。Bythesemeansthelawsucceedsinstrikingattherootoflandedproperty，anddispersingrapidlybothfamiliesandfortunes。*c[Footnotec:Landbeingthemoststablekindofproperty，wefind，fromtimetotime，richindividualswhoaredisposedtomakegreatsacrificesinordertoobtainit，andwhowillinglyforfeitaconsiderablepartoftheirincometomakesureoftherest。Buttheseareaccidentalcases。Thepreferenceforlandedpropertyisnolongerfoundhabituallyinanyclassbutamongthepoor。Thesmalllandowner，whohaslessinformation，lessimagination，andfewerpassionsthanthegreatone，isgenerallyoccupiedwiththedesireofincreasinghisestate:anditoftenhappensthatbyinheritance，bymarriage，orbythechancesoftrade，heisgraduallyfurnishedwiththemeans。Thus，tobalancethetendencywhichleadsmentodividetheirestates，thereexistsanother，whichincitesthemtoaddtothem。Thistendency，whichissufficienttopreventestatesfrombeingdividedadinfinitum，isnotstrongenoughtocreategreatterritorialpossessions，certainlynottokeepthemupinthesamefamily。]
MostcertainlyitisnotforusFrenchmenofthenineteenthcentury，whodailywitnessthepoliticalandsocialchangeswhichthelawofpartitionisbringingtopass，toquestionitsinfluence。Itisperpetuallyconspicuousinourcountry，overthrowingthewallsofourdwellingsandremovingthelandmarksofourfields。ButalthoughithasproducedgreateffectsinFrance，muchstillremainsforittodo。Ourrecollections，opinions，andhabitspresentpowerfulobstaclestoitsprogress。
IntheUnitedStatesithasnearlycompleteditsworkofdestruction，andtherewecanbeststudyitsresults。TheEnglishlawsconcerningthetransmissionofpropertywereabolishedinalmostalltheStatesatthetimeoftheRevolution。
Thelawofentailwassomodifiedasnottointerruptthefreecirculationofproperty。*dThefirstgenerationhavingpassedaway，estatesbegantobeparcelledout，andthechangebecamemoreandmorerapidwiththeprogressoftime。Atthismoment，afteralapseofalittlemorethansixtyyears，theaspectofsocietyistotallyaltered;thefamiliesofthegreatlandedproprietorsarealmostallcommingledwiththegeneralmass。IntheStateofNewYork，whichformerlycontainedmanyofthese，therearebuttwowhostillkeeptheirheadsabovethestream，andtheymustshortlydisappear。Thesonsoftheseopulentcitizensarebecomemerchants，lawyers，orphysicians。Mostofthemhavelapsedintoobscurity。Thelasttraceofhereditaryranksanddistinctionsisdestroyed—thelawofpartitionhasreducedalltoonelevel。[Footnoted:SeeAppendix，G。]