Translator—HenryReeve
BookOne
IntroductionSpecialIntroductionByHon。JohnT。MorganIntheelevenyearsthatseparatedtheDeclarationoftheIndependenceoftheUnitedStatesfromthecompletionofthatactintheordinationofourwrittenConstitution，thegreatmindsofAmericawerebentuponthestudyoftheprinciplesofgovernmentthatwereessentialtothepreservationofthelibertieswhichhadbeenwonatgreatcostandwithheroiclaborsandsacrifices。
TheirstudieswereconductedinviewoftheimperfectionsthatexperiencehaddevelopedinthegovernmentoftheConfederation，andtheywere，therefore，practicalandthorough。
WhentheConstitutionwasthusperfectedandestablished，anewformofgovernmentwascreated，butitwasneitherspeculativenorexperimentalastotheprinciplesonwhichitwasbased。Iftheyweretrueprinciples，astheywere，thegovernmentfoundeduponthemwasdestinedtoalifeandaninfluencethatwouldcontinuewhilethelibertiesitwasintendedtopreserveshouldbevaluedbythehumanfamily。Thoselibertieshadbeenwrungfromreluctantmonarchsinmanycontests，inmanycountries，andweregroupedintocreedsandestablishedinordinancessealedwithblood，inmanygreatstrugglesofthepeople。Theywerenotnewtothepeople。Theywereconsecratedtheories，butnogovernmenthadbeenpreviouslyestablishedforthegreatpurposeoftheirpreservationandenforcement。Thatwhichwasexperimentalinourplanofgovernmentwasthequestionwhetherdemocraticrulecouldbesoorganizedandconductedthatitwouldnotdegenerateintolicenseandresultinthetyrannyofabsolutism，withoutsavingtothepeoplethepowersooftenfoundnecessaryofrepressingordestroyingtheirenemy，whenhewasfoundinthepersonofasingledespot。
When，in1831，AlexisdeTocquevillecametostudyDemocracyinAmerica，thetrialofnearlyahalf—centuryoftheworkingofoursystemhadbeenmade，andithadbeenproved，bymanycrucialtests，tobeagovernmentof\"libertyregulatedbylaw，\"withsuchresultsinthedevelopmentofstrength，inpopulation，wealth，andmilitaryandcommercialpower，asnoagehadeverwitnessed。
[SeeAlexisDeTocqueville]
DeTocquevillehadaspecialinquirytoprosecute，inhisvisittoAmerica，inwhichhisgenerousandfaithfulsoulandthepowersofhisgreatintellectwereengagedinthepatrioticefforttosecuretothepeopleofFrancetheblessingsthatDemocracyinAmericahadordainedandestablishedthroughoutnearlytheentireWesternHemisphere。HehadreadthestoryoftheFrenchRevolution，muchofwhichhadbeenrecentlywritteninthebloodofmenandwomenofgreatdistinctionwhowerehisprogenitors;andhadwitnessedtheagitationsandterrorsoftheRestorationandoftheSecondRepublic，fruitfulincrimeandsacrifice，andbarrenofanygoodtomankind。
HehadjustwitnessedthespreadofrepublicangovernmentthroughallthevastcontinentalpossessionsofSpaininAmerica，andthelossofhergreatcolonies。Hehadseenthattheserevolutionswereaccomplishedalmostwithoutthesheddingofblood，andhewasfilledwithanxietytolearnthecausesthathadplacedrepublicangovernment，inFrance，insuchcontrastwithDemocracyinAmerica。
DeTocquevillewasscarcelythirtyyearsoldwhenhebeganhisstudiesofDemocracyinAmerica。Itwasaboldeffortforonewhohadnospecialtrainingingovernment，orinthestudyofpoliticaleconomy，buthehadtheexampleofLafayetteinestablishingthemilitaryfoundationoftheseliberties，andofWashington，Jefferson，Madison，andHamilton，allofwhomwereyoungmen，inbuildingupontheIndependenceoftheUnitedStatesthatwisestandbestplanofgeneralgovernmentthatwaseverdevisedforafreepeople。
HefoundthattheAmericanpeople，throughtheirchosenrepresentativeswhowereinstructedbytheirwisdomandexperienceandweresupportedbytheirvirtues—cultivated，purifiedandennobledbyself—relianceandtheloveofGod—hadmatured，intheexcellentwisdomoftheircounsels，anewplanofgovernment，whichembracedeverysecurityfortheirlibertiesandequalrightsandprivilegestoallinthepursuitofhappiness。
Hecameasanhonestandimpartialstudentandhisgreatcommentary，likethoseofPaul，waswrittenforthebenefitofallnationsandpeopleandinvindicationoftruthsthatwillstandfortheirdeliverancefrommonarchicalrule，whiletimeshalllast。
AFrencharistocratofthepureststrainofbloodandofthemosthonorablelineage，whosefamilyinfluencewascovetedbycrownedheads;whohadnoquarrelwiththerulersofthenation，andwassecureagainstwantbyhisinheritedestates;wasmovedbytheagitationsthatcompelledFrancetoattempttograspsuddenlythelibertiesandhappinesswehadgainedinourrevolutionand，byhisdevoutloveofFrance，tosearchoutandsubjecttothetestofreasonthebasicprinciplesoffreegovernmentthathadbeenembodiedinourConstitution。ThiswasthemissionofDeTocqueville，andnomissionwasevermorehonorablyorjustlyconducted，orconcludedwithgreatereclat，orbetterresultsforthewelfareofmankind。
Hisresearcheswerelogicalandexhaustive。Theyincludedeveryphaseofeveryquestionthatthenseemedtobeappositetothegreatinquiryhewasmaking。
Thejudgmentofallwhohavestudiedhiscommentariesseemstohavebeenunanimous，thathistalentsandlearningwerefullyequaltohistask。Hebeganwiththephysicalgeographyofthiscountry，andexaminedthecharacteristicsofthepeople，ofallracesandconditions，theirsocialandreligioussentiments，theireducationandtastes;theirindustries，theircommerce，theirlocalgovernments，theirpassionsandprejudices，andtheirethicsandliterature;leavingnothingunnoticedthatmightaffordanargumenttoprovethatourplanandformofgovernmentwasorwasnotadaptedespeciallytoapeculiarpeople，orthatitwouldbeimpracticableinanydifferentcountry，oramonganydifferentpeople。
TheprideandcomfortthattheAmericanpeopleenjoyinthegreatcommentariesofDeTocquevillearefarremovedfromtheselfishadulationthatcomesfromagreatandsingularsuccess。
Itistheconsciousnessofvictoryoverafalsetheoryofgovernmentwhichhasafflictedmankindformanyages，thatgivesjoytothetrueAmerican，asitdidtoDeTocquevilleinhisgreattriumph。
WhenDeTocquevillewrote，wehadlivedlessthanfiftyyearsunderourConstitution。Inthattimenogreatnationalcommotionhadoccurredthattesteditsstrength，oritspowerofresistancetointernalstrife，suchashadconvertedhisbelovedFranceintofieldsofslaughtertornbytempestsofwrath。
Hehadastrongconvictionthatnogovernmentcouldbeordainedthatcouldresisttheseinternalforces，when，theyaredirectedtoitsdestructionbybadmen，orunreasoningmobs，andmanythenbelieved，assomeyetbelieve，thatourgovernmentisunequaltosuchpressure，whentheassaultisthoroughlydesperate。
HadDeTocquevillelivedtoexaminethehistoryoftheUnitedStatesfrom1860to1870，hismisgivingsastothispowerofself—preservationwould，probably，havebeenclearedoff。Hewouldhaveseenthat，attheendofthemostdestructivecivilwarthateveroccurred，whenanimositiesofthebitterestsorthadbanishedallgoodfeelingfromtheheartsofourpeople，theStatesoftheAmericanUnion，stillincompleteorganizationandequippedwithalltheirofficialentourage，alignedthemselvesintheirplacesandtookupthepowersanddutiesoflocalgovernmentinperfectorderandwithoutembarrassment。Thiswouldhavedispelledhisapprehensions，ifhehadany，aboutthepoweroftheUnitedStatestowithstandtheseverestshocksofcivilwar。Couldhehavetracedthefurthercourseofeventsuntiltheyopentheportalsofthetwentiethcentury，hewouldhavecastawayhisfearsofourabilitytorestorepeace，order，andprosperity，inthefaceofanydifficulties，andwouldhaverejoicedtofindintheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatestheremedythatisprovidedforthehealingofthenation。
DeTocquevilleexamined，withthecarethatisworthytheimportanceofthesubject，thenatureandvalueofthesystemof\"localself—government，\"aswestylethismostimportantfeatureofourplan，and（ashasoftenhappened）whenthisoranysubjecthasbecomeamatterofanxiousconcern，histreatmentofthequestionsisfoundtohavebeenmasterlyandhispreconceptionsalmostprophetic。
Wearefrequentlyindebtedtohimforableexpositionsandtruedoctrinesrelatingtosubjectsthathaveslumberedinthemindsofthepeopleuntiltheyweresuddenlyforcedonourattentionbyunexpectedevents。
Inhisintroductorychapter，M。DeTocquevillesays:
\"AmongstthenovelobjectsthatattractedmyattentionduringmystayintheUnitedStates，nothingstruckmemoreforciblythanthegeneralequalityofconditions。\"Hereferred，doubtless，tosocialandpoliticalconditionsamongthepeopleofthewhiterace，whoaredescribedas\"We，thepeople，\"intheopeningsentenceoftheConstitution。ThelastthreeamendmentsoftheConstitutionhavesochangedthis，thatthosewhowerethennegroslavesareclothedwiththerightsofcitizenship，includingtherightofsuffrage。Thiswasapoliticalpartymovement，intendedtoberadicalandrevolutionary，butitwill，ultimately，reactbecauseithasnotthesanctionofpublicopinion。
IfM。DeTocquevillecouldnowsearchforalawthatwouldnegativethisprovisioninitseffectuponsocialequality，hewouldfailtofindit。Buthewouldfinditintheunwrittenlawofthenaturalaversionoftheraces。Hewouldfinditinpublicopinion，whichisthevitalforceineverylawinafreegovernment。ThisisasubjectthatourConstitutionfailedtoregulate，becauseitwasnotcontemplatedbyitsauthors。Itisaquestionthatwillsettleitself，withoutseriousdifficulty。
Theequalityinthesuffrage，thusguaranteedtothenegrorace，alone—foritwasnotintendedtoincludeothercoloredraces—
createsanewphaseofpoliticalconditionsthatM。DeTocquevillecouldnotforesee。Yet，inhiscommendationofthelocaltownandcountygovernments，heapplaudsandsustainsthatelementaryfeatureofourpoliticalorganizationwhich，intheend，willrenderharmlessthiswidedeparturefromtheoriginalplanandpurposeofAmericanDemocracy。\"LocalSelf—Government，\"
independentofgeneralcontrol，exceptforgeneralpurposes，istherootandoriginofallfreerepublicangovernment，andistheantagonistofallgreatpoliticalcombinationsthatthreatentherightsofminorities。Itisthepublicopinionformedintheindependentexpressionsoftownsandothersmallcivildistrictsthatistherealconservatismoffreegovernment。Itisequallytheenemyofthatdangerousevil，thecorruptionoftheballot—box，fromwhichitisnowapprehendedthatoneofourgreatesttroublesistoarise。
Thevoterisselected，underourlaws，becausehehascertainphysicalqualifications—ageandsex。Hisdisqualifications，whenanyareimposed，relatetohiseducationorproperty，andtothefactthathehasnotbeenconvictedofcrime。Ofallmenheshouldbemostdirectlyamenabletopublicopinion。
Thetestofmoralcharacteranddevotiontothedutiesofgoodcitizenshipareignoredinthelaws，becausethecourtscanseldomdealwithsuchquestionsinauniformandsatisfactoryway，underrulesthatapplyaliketoall。Thusthevoter，selectedbylawtorepresenthimselfandfourothernon—votingcitizens，isoftenapersonwhoisunfitforanypublicdutyortrust。Inatowngovernment，havingasmallareaofjurisdiction，wherethevoiceofthemajorityofqualifiedvotersisconclusive，thefitnessofthepersonwhoistoexercisethathighrepresentativeprivilegecanbedeterminedbyhisneighborsandacquaintances，and，inthegreatmajorityofcases，itwillbedecidedhonestlyandforthegoodofthecountry。Insuchmeetings，thereisalwaysaspiritofloyaltytotheState，becausethatisloyaltytothepeople，andareverenceforGodthatgivesweighttothedutiesandresponsibilitiesofcitizenship。
M。DeTocquevillefoundintheseminorlocaljurisdictionsthetheoreticalconservatismwhich，intheaggregate，isthesafestrelianceoftheState。Sowehavefoundthem，inpractice，thetrueprotectorsofthepurityoftheballot，withoutwhichallfreegovernmentwilldegenerateintoabsolutism。
InthefutureoftheRepublic，wemustencountermanydifficultanddangeroussituations，buttheprinciplesestablishedintheConstitutionandthecheckuponhastyorinconsideratelegislation，anduponexecutiveaction，andthesupremearbitramentofthecourts，willbefoundsufficientforthesafetyofpersonalrights，andforthesafetyofthegovernment，andthepropheticoutlookofM。DeTocquevillewillbefullyrealizedthroughtheinfluenceofDemocracyinAmerica。
EachsucceedinggenerationofAmericanswillfindinthepureandimpartialreflectionsofDeTocquevilleanewsourceofprideinourinstitutionsofgovernment，andsoundreasonsforpatrioticefforttopreservethemandtoinculcatetheirteachings。TheyhavemasteredthepowerofmonarchicalruleintheAmericanHemisphere，freeingreligionfromallshackles，andwillspread，byaquietbutresistlessinfluence，throughtheislandsoftheseastootherlands，wheretheappealsofDeTocquevilleforhumanrightsandlibertieshavealreadyinspiredthesoulsofthepeople。
Hon。JohnT。MorganSpecialIntroductionByHon。JohnJ。IngallsNearlytwo—thirdsofacenturyhaselapsedsincetheappearanceof\"DemocracyinAmerica，\"byAlexisCharlesHenriClereldeTocqueville，aFrenchnobleman，bornatParis，July29，1805。
Bredtothelaw，heexhibitedanearlypredilectionforphilosophyandpoliticaleconomy，andattwenty—twowasappointedjudge—auditoratthetribunalofVersailles。
In1831，commissionedostensiblytoinvestigatethepenitentiarysystemoftheUnitedStates，hevisitedthiscountry，withhisfriend，GustavedeBeaumont，travellingextensivelythroughthosepartsoftheRepublicthensubduedtosettlement，studyingthemethodsoflocal，State，andnationaladministration，andobservingthemannersandhabits，thedailylife，thebusiness，theindustriesandoccupationsofthepeople。
\"DemocracyinAmerica，\"thefirstoffourvolumesupon\"AmericanInstitutionsandtheirInfluence，\"waspublishedin1835。ItwasreceivedatoncebythescholarsandthinkersofEuropeasaprofound，impartial，andentertainingexpositionoftheprinciplesofpopular，representativeself—government。
Napoleon，\"Themightysomnambulistofavanisheddream，\"hadabolishedfeudalismandabsolutism，mademonarchsanddynastiesobsolete，andsubstitutedforthedivinerightofkingsthesovereigntyofthepeople。
Althoughbybirthandsympathiesanaristocrat，M。deTocquevillesawthatthereignoftraditionandprivilegeatlastwasended。Heperceivedthatcivilization，aftermanybloodycenturies，hadenteredanewepoch。Hebeheld，anddeplored，theexcessesthathadattendedthegenesisofthedemocraticspiritinFrance，andwhilehelovedliberty，hedetestedthecrimesthathadbeencommittedinitsname。Belongingneithertotheclasswhichregardedthesocialrevolutionasaninnovationtoberesisted，nortothatwhichconsideredpoliticalequalitytheuniversalpanaceafortheevilsofhumanity，heresolvedbypersonalobservationoftheresultsofdemocracyintheNewWorldtoascertainitsnaturalconsequences，andtolearnwhatthenationsofEuropehadtohopeorfearfromitsfinalsupremacy。
Thatayouthoftwenty—sixshouldentertainadesignsobroadandboldimpliessingularintellectualintrepidity。Hehadneithermodelnorprecedent。Thevastnessandnoveltyoftheundertakingincreaseadmirationfortheremarkableabilitywithwhichthetaskwasperformed。
Wereliteraryexcellencethesoleclaimof\"DemocracyinAmerica\"todistinction，thesplendorofitscompositionalonewouldentitleittohighplaceamongthemasterpiecesofthecentury。Thefirstchapter，upontheexteriorformofNorthAmerica，asthetheatreuponwhichthegreatdramaistobeenacted，forgraphicandpicturesquedescriptionofthephysicalcharacteristicsofthecontinentisnotsurpassedinliterature:
noristhereanysubdivisionoftheworkinwhichtheseverestphilosophyisnotinvestedwiththegraceofpoetry，andthedrieststatisticswiththecharmofromance。WesternemigrationseemedcommonplaceandprosaictillM。deTocquevillesaid，\"ThisgradualandcontinuousprogressoftheEuropeanracetowardtheRockyMountainshasthesolemnityofaprovidentialevent;itislikeadelugeofmenrisingunabatedly，anddailydrivenonwardbythehandofGod！\"
ThemindofM。deTocquevillehadthecandorofthephotographiccamera。Itrecordedimpressionswiththeimpartialityofnature。Theimagewassometimesdistorted，andtheperspectivewasnotalwaystrue，buthewasneitherapanegyrist，noranadvocate，noracritic。HeobservedAmericanphenomenaasillustrations，notasproofnorarguments;andalthoughitisapparentthatthetendencyofhismindwasnotwhollyfavorabletothedemocraticprinciple，yetthosewhodissentfromhisconclusionsmustcommendtheabilityandcouragewithwhichtheyareexpressed。
ThoughnotoriginallywrittenforAmericans，\"DemocracyinAmerica\"mustalwaysremainaworkofengrossingandconstantlyincreasinginteresttocitizensoftheUnitedStatesasthefirstphilosophicandcomprehensiveviewofoursociety，institutions，anddestiny。Noonecanriseevenfromthemostcursoryperusalwithoutclearerinsightandmorepatrioticappreciationoftheblessingsoflibertyprotectedbylaw，norwithoutencouragementforthestabilityandperpetuityoftheRepublic。ThecauseswhichappearedtoM。deTocquevilletomenaceboth，havegone。
Thedespotismofpublicopinion，thetyrannyofmajorities，theabsenceofintellectualfreedomwhichseemedtohimtodegradeadministrationandbringstatesmanship，learning，andliteraturetothelevelofthelowest，arenolongerconsidered。Theviolenceofpartyspirithasbeenmitigated，andthejudgmentofthewiseisnotsubordinatedtotheprejudicesoftheignorant。
Otherdangershavecome。Equalityofconditionsnolongerexists。Prophetsofevilpredictthedownfallofdemocracy，butthestudentofM。deTocquevillewillfindconsolationandencouragementinthereflectionthatthesamespiritwhichhasvanquishedtheperilsofthepast，whichheforesaw，willbeequallypreparedfortheresponsibilitiesofthepresentandthefuture。
ThelastofthefourvolumesofM。deTocqueville’sworkuponAmericaninstitutionsappearedin1840。
In1838hewaschosenmemberoftheAcademyofMoralandPoliticalSciences。In1839hewaselectedtotheChamberofDeputies。HebecameamemberoftheFrenchAcademyin1841。
In1848hewasintheAssembly，andfromJune2ndtoOctober31sthewasMinisterofForeignAffairs。Thecoupd’etatofDecember2，1851drovehimfromthepublicservice。In1856hepublished\"TheOldRegimeandtheRevolution。\"HediedatCannes，April15，1859，attheageoffifty—four。
Hon。JohnJ。IngallsIntroductoryChapterAmongstthenovelobjectsthatattractedmyattentionduringmystayintheUnitedStates，nothingstruckmemoreforciblythanthegeneralequalityofconditions。Ireadilydiscoveredtheprodigiousinfluencewhichthisprimaryfactexercisesonthewholecourseofsociety，bygivingacertaindirectiontopublicopinion，andacertaintenortothelaws;byimpartingnewmaximstothegoverningpowers，andpeculiarhabitstothegoverned。I
speedilyperceivedthattheinfluenceofthisfactextendsfarbeyondthepoliticalcharacterandthelawsofthecountry，andthatithasnolessempireovercivilsocietythanovertheGovernment;itcreatesopinions，engenderssentiments，suggeststheordinarypracticesoflife，andmodifieswhateveritdoesnotproduce。ThemoreIadvancedinthestudyofAmericansociety，themoreIperceivedthattheequalityofconditionsisthefundamentalfactfromwhichallothersseemtobederived，andthecentralpointatwhichallmyobservationsconstantlyterminated。
Ithenturnedmythoughtstoourownhemisphere，whereI
imaginedthatIdiscernedsomethinganalogoustothespectaclewhichtheNewWorldpresentedtome。IobservedthattheequalityofconditionsisdailyprogressingtowardsthoseextremelimitswhichitseemstohavereachedintheUnitedStates，andthatthedemocracywhichgovernstheAmericancommunitiesappearstoberapidlyrisingintopowerinEurope。Ihenceconceivedtheideaofthebookwhichisnowbeforethereader。
Itisevidenttoallalikethatagreatdemocraticrevolutionisgoingonamongstus;buttherearetwoopinionsastoitsnatureandconsequences。Tosomeitappearstobeanovelaccident，whichassuchmaystillbechecked;toothersitseemsirresistible，becauseitisthemostuniform，themostancient，andthemostpermanenttendencywhichistobefoundinhistory。
LetusrecollectthesituationofFrancesevenhundredyearsago，whentheterritorywasdividedamongstasmallnumberoffamilies，whoweretheownersofthesoilandtherulersoftheinhabitants;therightofgoverningdescendedwiththefamilyinheritancefromgenerationtogeneration;forcewastheonlymeansbywhichmancouldactonman，andlandedpropertywasthesolesourceofpower。Soon，however，thepoliticalpoweroftheclergywasfounded，andbegantoexertitself:theclergyopeneditsrankstoallclasses，tothepoorandtherich，thevilleinandthelord;equalitypenetratedintotheGovernmentthroughtheChurch，andthebeingwhoasaserfmusthavevegetatedinperpetualbondagetookhisplaceasapriestinthemidstofnobles，andnotinfrequentlyabovetheheadsofkings。
Thedifferentrelationsofmenbecamemorecomplicatedandmorenumerousassocietygraduallybecamemorestableandmorecivilized。Thencethewantofcivillawswasfelt;andtheorderoflegalfunctionariessoonrosefromtheobscurityofthetribunalsandtheirdustychambers，toappearatthecourtofthemonarch，bythesideofthefeudalbaronsintheirermineandtheirmail。Whilstthekingswereruiningthemselvesbytheirgreatenterprises，andthenoblesexhaustingtheirresourcesbyprivatewars，thelowerorderswereenrichingthemselvesbycommerce。TheinfluenceofmoneybegantobeperceptibleinStateaffairs。Thetransactionsofbusinessopenedanewroadtopower，andthefinancierrosetoastationofpoliticalinfluenceinwhichhewasatonceflatteredanddespised。Graduallythespreadofmentalacquirements，andtheincreasingtasteforliteratureandart，openedchancesofsuccesstotalent;sciencebecameameansofgovernment，intelligenceledtosocialpower，andthemanofletterstookapartintheaffairsoftheState。
Thevalueattachedtotheprivilegesofbirthdecreasedintheexactproportioninwhichnewpathswerestruckouttoadvancement。Intheeleventhcenturynobilitywasbeyondallprice;inthethirteenthitmightbepurchased;itwasconferredforthefirsttimein1270;andequalitywasthusintroducedintotheGovernmentbythearistocracyitself。
InthecourseofthesesevenhundredyearsitsometimeshappenedthatinordertoresisttheauthorityoftheCrown，ortodiminishthepoweroftheirrivals，thenoblesgrantedacertainshareofpoliticalrightstothepeople。Or，morefrequently，thekingpermittedthelowerorderstoenjoyadegreeofpower，withtheintentionofrepressingthearistocracy。InFrancethekingshavealwaysbeenthemostactiveandthemostconstantoflevellers。Whentheywerestrongandambitioustheysparednopainstoraisethepeopletothelevelofthenobles;
whentheyweretemperateorweaktheyallowedthepeopletoriseabovethemselves。Someassistedthedemocracybytheirtalents，othersbytheirvices。LouisXIandLouisXIVreducedeveryrankbeneaththethronetothesamesubjection;LouisXVdescended，himselfandallhisCourt，intothedust。
Assoonaslandwasheldonanyotherthanafeudaltenure，andpersonalpropertybeganinitsturntoconferinfluenceandpower，everyimprovementwhichwasintroducedincommerceormanufacturewasafreshelementoftheequalityofconditions。
Henceforwardeverynewdiscovery，everynewwantwhichitengendered，andeverynewdesirewhichcravedsatisfaction，wasasteptowardstheuniversallevel。Thetasteforluxury，theloveofwar，theswayoffashion，andthemostsuperficialaswellasthedeepestpassionsofthehumanheart，co—operatedtoenrichthepoorandtoimpoverishtherich。
Fromthetimewhentheexerciseoftheintellectbecamethesourceofstrengthandofwealth，itisimpossiblenottoconsidereveryadditiontoscience，everyfreshtruth，andeverynewideaasagermofpowerplacedwithinthereachofthepeople。Poetry，eloquence，andmemory，thegraceofwit，theglowofimagination，thedepthofthought，andallthegiftswhicharebestowedbyProvidencewithanequalhand，turnedtotheadvantageofthedemocracy;andevenwhentheywereinthepossessionofitsadversariestheystillserveditscausebythrowingintoreliefthenaturalgreatnessofman;itsconquestsspread，therefore，withthoseofcivilizationandknowledge，andliteraturebecameanarsenalwherethepoorestandtheweakestcouldalwaysfindweaponstotheirhand。
Inperusingthepagesofourhistory，weshallscarcelymeetwithasinglegreatevent，inthelapseofsevenhundredyears，whichhasnotturnedtotheadvantageofequality。TheCrusadesandthewarsoftheEnglishdecimatedthenoblesanddividedtheirpossessions;theerectionofcommunitiesintroducedanelementofdemocraticlibertyintothebosomoffeudalmonarchy;
theinventionoffire—armsequalizedthevilleinandthenobleonthefieldofbattle;printingopenedthesameresourcestothemindsofallclasses;thepostwasorganizedsoastobringthesameinformationtothedoorofthepoorman’scottageandtothegateofthepalace;andProtestantismproclaimedthatallmenarealikeabletofindtheroadtoheaven。ThediscoveryofAmericaofferedathousandnewpathstofortune，andplacedrichesandpowerwithinthereachoftheadventurousandtheobscure。IfweexaminewhathashappenedinFranceatintervalsoffiftyyears，beginningwiththeeleventhcentury，weshallinvariablyperceivethatatwofoldrevolutionhastakenplaceinthestateofsociety。Thenoblehasgonedownonthesocialladder，andtheroturierhasgoneup;theonedescendsastheotherrises。Everyhalfcenturybringsthemnearertoeachother，andtheywillveryshortlymeet。
NoristhisphenomenonatallpeculiartoFrance。
WhithersoeverweturnoureyesweshallwitnessthesamecontinualrevolutionthroughoutthewholeofChristendom。Thevariousoccurrencesofnationalexistencehaveeverywhereturnedtotheadvantageofdemocracy;allmenhaveaideditbytheirexertions:thosewhohaveintentionallylaboredinitscause，andthosewhohaveserveditunwittingly;thosewhohavefoughtforitandthosewhohavedeclaredthemselvesitsopponents，haveallbeendrivenalonginthesametrack，havealllaboredtooneend，someignorantlyandsomeunwillingly;allhavebeenblindinstrumentsinthehandsofGod。
Thegradualdevelopmentoftheequalityofconditionsisthereforeaprovidentialfact，anditpossessesallthecharacteristicsofadivinedecree:itisuniversal，itisdurable，itconstantlyeludesallhumaninterference，andalleventsaswellasallmencontributetoitsprogress。Wouldit，then，bewisetoimaginethatasocialimpulsewhichdatesfromsofarbackcanbecheckedbytheeffortsofageneration？Isitcrediblethatthedemocracywhichhasannihilatedthefeudalsystemandvanquishedkingswillrespectthecitizenandthecapitalist？Willitstopnowthatithasgrownsostronganditsadversariessoweak？Nonecansaywhichwaywearegoing，foralltermsofcomparisonarewanting:theequalityofconditionsismorecompleteintheChristiancountriesofthepresentdaythanithasbeenatanytimeorinanypartoftheworld;sothattheextentofwhatalreadyexistspreventsusfromforeseeingwhatmaybeyettocome。
Thewholebookwhichishereofferedtothepublichasbeenwrittenundertheimpressionofakindofreligiousdreadproducedintheauthor’smindbythecontemplationofsoirresistiblearevolution，whichhasadvancedforcenturiesinspiteofsuchamazingobstacles，andwhichisstillproceedinginthemidstoftheruinsithasmade。ItisnotnecessarythatGodhimselfshouldspeakinordertodisclosetoustheunquestionablesignsofHiswill;wecandiscerntheminthehabitualcourseofnature，andintheinvariabletendencyofevents:Iknow，withoutaspecialrevelation，thattheplanetsmoveintheorbitstracedbytheCreator’sfinger。Ifthemenofourtimewereledbyattentiveobservationandbysincerereflectiontoacknowledgethatthegradualandprogressivedevelopmentofsocialequalityisatoncethepastandfutureoftheirhistory，thissolitarytruthwouldconferthesacredcharacterofaDivinedecreeuponthechange。ToattempttocheckdemocracywouldbeinthatcasetoresistthewillofGod;
andthenationswouldthenbeconstrainedtomakethebestofthesociallotawardedtothembyProvidence。
TheChristiannationsofourageseemtometopresentamostalarmingspectacle;theimpulsewhichisbearingthemalongissostrongthatitcannotbestopped，butitisnotyetsorapidthatitcannotbeguided:theirfateisintheirhands;yetalittlewhileanditmaybesonolonger。Thefirstdutywhichisatthistimeimposeduponthosewhodirectouraffairsistoeducatethedemocracy;towarmitsfaith，ifthatbepossible;topurifyitsmorals;todirectitsenergies;tosubstituteaknowledgeofbusinessforitsinexperience，andanacquaintancewithitstrueinterestsforitsblindpropensities;toadaptitsgovernmenttotimeandplace，andtomodifyitincompliancewiththeoccurrencesandtheactorsoftheage。Anewscienceofpoliticsisindispensabletoanewworld。This，however，iswhatwethinkofleast;launchedinthemiddleofarapidstream，weobstinatelyfixoureyesontheruinswhichmaystillbedescribedupontheshorewehaveleft，whilstthecurrentsweepsusalong，anddrivesusbackwardstowardsthegulf。