Theyshouldhavebeenthelastpeopletobelievetooimplicitlyinthemagicalefficacyofpoliticalcontrivances，fortheywerefullyawarethatmanymenareknavesandmostmenfools。TheyprobablyputlittlefaithinBentham’sUtopia，exceptasaremoteideal，andanidealofunimaginativeminds。TheUtopiawasconstructedon’individualist’principles，becausecommon-sensenaturallyapprovesindividualism。Thewholesocialandpoliticalorderisclearlythesumoftheindividuals，whocombinetoformanaggregate；andtheoriesaboutsocialbondstakeonetothemysticalandsentimental。TheabsolutetendencyiscommontoBenthamandtheJacobins。Whethertheindividualbetakenasaunitofconstantproperties，orasthesubjectofabsoluterights，wereachequallyabsoluteconclusions。Whenallthesocialandpoliticalregulationsareregardedasindefinitelymodifiable，theultimatelawscometodependupontheabsoluteframeworkofunalterablefact。This，again，isoftentherightpointofviewforimmediatequestionsinwhichwemaytakeforgrantedthattheaverageindividualisinfactconstant；and，asIhavesaidinregardtoBentham’slegislativeprocess，leadstoveryrelevantandimportant，thoughnotultimate，questions。Buttherearecertainotherresultswhichrequiretobenoticed。’Individualism，’likeotherwordsthathavebecomewatchwordsofcontroversy，hasvariousshadesofmeaning，andrequiresalittlemoredefinition。
VII。INDIVIDUALISM
’Individualism’inthefirstplaceisgenerallymentionedinadifferentconnection。The’ready-made’manofwhomIhavespokenbecomesthe’economicman。’Benthamhimselfcontributedlittletoeconomictheory。HismostimportantwritingwastheDefenceofUsury，andinthis，aswehaveseen，hewassimplyaddingacorollarytotheWealthofNations。TheWealthofNationsitselfrepresentedthespiritofbusiness；therevoltofmenwhowerebuildingupavastindustrialsystemagainstthefettersimposedbytraditionallegislationandbyrulerswhoregardedindustryingeneral，asTelfordissaidtohaveregardedrivers。Riversweremeanttosupplycanals，andtradetosupplytax-gatherers。Withthisrevolt，ofcourse，Benthamwasinfullsympathy，buthereIshallonlyspeakofonedoctrineofgreatinterest，whichoccursbothinhispoliticaltreatisesandhisfeweconomicalremarks。Benthamobjected，aswehaveseen，totheabstracttheoryofequality。Yetitwastothemodeofdeductionratherthantothedoctrineitselfwhichheobjected。Hegave，infact，hisowndefence；anditisoneworthnotice。109*Theprincipleofequalityisderivative，notultimate。Equalityisgoodbecauseequalityincreasesthesumofhappiness。Thus，ashesays，110*iftwomenhave£；1000，andyoutransfer£；500fromonetotheother，youincreasetherecipient’swealthbyone-third，anddiminishtheloser’swealthbyone-half。Youthereforeaddlesspleasurethanyousubtract。Theprincipleisgivenlessmathematically111*
bythemoresignificantargumentthat’felicity’dependsnotsimplyonthe’matteroffelicity’orthestimulus，butalsoonthesensibilitytofelicitywhichisnecessarilylimited。Thereforebyaddingwealth——taking，forexample，fromathousandlabourerstogivetooneking——youaresupersaturatingasensibilityalreadygluttedbytakingawayfromothersagreatamountofrealhappiness。Withthisargument，whichhasoflateyearsbecomeconspicuousineconomics，heconnectsanotherofprimaryimportance。Thefirstconditionofhappiness，hesays，isnot’equality’but’security。’Nowyoucanonlyequaliseattheexpenseofsecurity。IfIamtohavemypropertytakenawaywheneveritisgreaterthanmyneighbour’s，Icanhavenosecurity。112*
Hence，ifthetwoprinciplesconflict，equalityshouldgiveway。Securityistheprimary，whichmustoverridethesecondary，aim。Mustthetwoprinciples，then，alwaysconflict?No；but’timeistheonlymediator。’113*Thelawmayhelptoaccumulateinequalities；butinaprosperousstatethereisa’continualprogresstowardsequality。’Thelawhastostandaside；nottomaintainmonopolies；nottorestraintrade；nottopermitentails；andthenpropertywilldiffuseitselfbyanaturalprocess，alreadyexemplifiedinthegrowthofEurope。The’pyramids’heapedupinfeudaltimeshavebeenlowered，andtheir’dé；brisspreadabroad’amongtheindustrious。HereagainweseehowBenthamvirtuallydivergesfromtheapriorischool。Theirabsolutetendencieswouldintroduce’equality’byforce；hewouldleaveittothespontaneousprogressofsecurity。HenceBenthamisinthemainanadherentofwhathecalls114*the’laissez-nousfaire’principle。Headvocatesitmostexplicitlyintheso-calledManualofPoliticalEconomy——ashortessayfirstprintedin1798。115*Thetract，however，suchasitis，islessuponpoliticaleconomyproperthanuponeconomiclegislation；anditschiefconclusionisthatalmostalllegislationisimproper。Hismainprincipleis’Bequiet’theequivalentoftheFrenchphrase，whichsurelyshouldhavebeenexcludedfromsoEnglishatheory。Securityandfreedomareallthatindustryrequires；andindustryshouldsaytogovernmentonlywhatDiogenessaidtoAlexander，’Standoutofmysunshine。’116*