Thephenomenaaretoocomplex；governmentsofthemostvaryingkindshaveshownthesamefaults；andgovernmentsofthesamekindhaveshowntheminthemostvariousdegrees。ThereforethemethodwhichMacaulaysuggestsisinapplicable。Weshouldreasonaboutgovernment，saysMacaulay，31asBacontoldustoreasonaboutheat。Findallthecircumstancesinwhichhotbodiesagree，andyouwilldeterminetheprincipleofheat。Findallthecircumstancesinwhichgoodgovernmentsagree，andyouwillfindtheprinciplesofgoodgovernment。Certainly；buttheprocess，asMacaulayadmits，wouldbealongone。Rather，itwouldbeendless。What’circumstances’
canbethesameinallgoodgovernmentsinalltimesandplaces?Millheldinsubstance，thatwecouldlaydowncertainbroadprinciplesabouthumannature，theexistenceofwhichisofcourseknownfrom’experience，’andbyshowinghowtheywouldwork，ifrestrainedbynodistinctchecks，obtaincertainusefulconclusions。MillindicatesthislineofreplyinhisownattackuponMackintosh。32ThereheexplainsthatwhathereallymeantwastosetforthaprinciplerecognisedbyBerkeley，Hume，Blackstone，and，especially，inPlato’sRepublic。Plato’streatiseisadevelopmentoftheprinciplethat’identityofinterestsaffordstheonlysecurityforgoodgovernment。’Withoutsuchidentityofinterest，saidPlato，theguardiansoftheflockbecomewolves。Hume33hadgivenapithyexpressionofthesameviewinthemaxim’established，’ashesays，’bypoliticalwriters，’thatinframingthe’checksandcontrolsoftheconstitution，everymanoughttobesupposedaknaveandtohavenootherendinhisactionsthanprivateinterest。’Millpointsthisbyreferringtothe’organsofaristocraticalopinion’forthelastfiftyyears。Theincessantappealhasbeenfor’confidenceinpublicmen，’andconfidenceisanothernameforscopeformisrule。34This，heexplains，waswhathemeantbythestatementwhichMackintoshconsideredtohavebeenexplodedbyMacaulaythateverymanpursuedhisowninterest。35Itreferredtotheclasslegislationofthegreataristocraticring：kings，nobles，church，law，andarmy。Utilitarianism，initspoliticalrelations，wasonecontinuouswarfareagainstthesesinister’interests。’Themaster-evilofthecontemporarypoliticalstateundoubtedlyimpliedawantofresponsibility。
Apoliticaltrustwashabituallyconfoundedwithprivateproperty。Moreover，whateverelsemaybeessentialtogoodgovernment，oneessentialisastrongsenseofresponsibilityinthegovernors。Thatisaverysoundprinciple，thoughnotanaxiomfromwhichallpoliticalsciencecanbededuced。Iftheessayon’Government’wasreallymeantasakindofpoliticalEuclid——asadeductionofthebestsystemofgovernmentfromthissingleprincipleofresponsibility——itwasasgrotesqueasMacaulayasserted。Millmightperhapshavemetthecriticismbyloweringhisclaimsashissonsuggests。
Hecertainlymanagedtoexpresshisargumentinsuchtermsthatithasanuncomfortableappearanceofbeingintendedforascientificexposition。
ThisdeservesnoticebecausethepositionischaracteristicoftheUtilitarians’method。Theirappealstoexperiencealwaysendbyabsoluteassertions，Weshallfindthesamedifficultyintheireconomicinquiries，Whenaccused，forexample，oflayingdownabsoluteprinciplesinsuchcases，theyreplythattheyareonlyspeakingof’tendencies，’andrecognisetheexistenceof’checks，’theytreatofwhatwouldbe，ifcertainforcesactedwithoutlimit，asanecessarysteptowardsdiscoveringwhatiswhenthelimitsexist。Theyappeartotheiropponentstoforgetthelimitsintheirpracticalconclusions。Thispoliticalargumentisaninstanceofthesamemethod。Thegenesisofhistheoryisplain。Mill’s’government，’likeBentham’s，issimplytheconceptionoflegal’sovereignty’transferredtothesphereofpolitics。Mill’sexpositionisonlydistinguishedfromhismaster’sbytheclearnesswithwhichhebringsouttheunderlyingassumptions。Thelegalsovereignisomnipotent，forwhathedeclarestobethelawisthereforethelaw。Thelawishiscommandsenforcedby’sanctions，’andthereforebyorganisedforce，themotivesforobediencearethefearofthegallowsononeside，and，ontheother，thedesireofprotectionforlifeandproperty。Law，again，istheultimatesocialbond，andcanbemadeatwillbythesovereign。